Kinematic changes in dairy cows with induced hindlimb lameness: transferring methodology from the field of equine biomechanics.

Lameness is a common issue on dairy farms, with serious implications for economy and animal welfare. Affected animals may be overlooked until their condition becomes severe. Thus, improved lameness detection methods are needed. In this study, we describe kinematic changes in dairy cows with induced, mild to moderate hindlimb lameness in detail using a "whole-body approach". Thereby, we aimed to identify explicable features to discriminate between lame and non-lame animals for use in future automated surveillance systems. For this purpose, we induced a mild to moderate and fully reversible hindlimb lameness in 16 dairy cows. We obtained 41 straight-line walk measurements (containing > 3 000 stride cycles) using 11 inertial measurement units attached to predefined locations on the cows' upper body and limbs. One baseline and ≥ 1 induction measurement(s) were obtained from each cow. Thirty-one spatial and temporal parameters related to limb movement and inter-limb coordination, upper body vertical displacement symmetry and range of motion (ROMz), as well as pelvic pitch and roll, were calculated on a stride-by-stride basis. For upper body locations, vertical within-stride movement asymmetry was investigated both by calculating within-stride differences between local extrema, and by a signal decomposition approach. For each parameter, the baseline condition was compared with induction condition in linear mixed-effect models, while accounting for stride duration. Significant difference between baseline and induction condition was seen for 23 out of 31 kinematic parameters. Lameness induction was associated with decreased maximum protraction (-5.8%) and retraction (-3.7%) angles of the distal portion of the induced/non-induced limb respectively. Diagonal and lateral dissociation of foot placement (ratio of stride duration) involving the non-induced limb decreased by 8.8 and 4.4%, while diagonal dissociation involving the induced limb increased by 7.7%. Increased within-stride vertical displacement asymmetry of the poll, neck, withers, thoracolumbar junction (back) and tubera sacrale (TS) were seen. This was most notable for the back and poll, where a 40 and 24% increase of the first harmonic amplitude (asymmetric component) and 27 and 14% decrease of the second harmonic amplitude (symmetric component) of vertical displacement were seen. ROMz increased in all these landmarks except for TS. Changes in pelvic roll main components, but not in the range of motion of either pitch or roll angle per stride, were seen. Thus, we identified several kinematic features which may be used in future surveillance systems. Further studies are needed to determine their usefulness in realistic conditions, and to implement methods on farms.

Normal variation in pelvic roll motion pattern during straight-line trot in hand in warmblood horses.

In horses, hip hike asymmetry, i.e. left-right difference in hip upwards movement during hind limb protraction in trot, is a crucial lameness sign. Vertical hip movements are complex, influenced by both pelvic roll and pelvic vertical motion. Veterinarians find it challenging to identify low-grade lameness, and knowledge of normal variation is a prerequisite for discerning abnormalities. This study, which included 100 clinically sound Warmblood horses, aimed to describe normal variation in pelvic roll stride patterns. Data were collected during straight-line trot in hand using optical motion capture. Stride-segmented pelvic roll data, normalised with respect to time (0-100% of the stride) and amplitude (± 0.5 of horse average stride range of motion), were modelled as a linear combination of sine and cosine curves. A sine curve with one period per stride and a cosine curve with three periods per stride explained the largest proportions of roll motion: model estimate 0.335 (p < 0.01) and 0.138 (p < 0.01), respectively. Using finite mixture models, the horses could be separated into three groups sharing common pelvic roll characteristics. In conclusion, pelvic roll motion in trot follows a similar basic pattern in most horses, yet there is significant individual variation in the relative prominence of the most characteristic features.

Kinematic gait characteristics of straight line walk in clinically sound dairy cows.

The aim of this study is to describe the kinematic gait characteristics of straight line walk in clinically sound dairy cows using body mounted Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs) at multiple anatomical locations. The temporal parameters used are speed and non-speed normalized stance duration, bipedal and tripedal support durations, maximal protraction and retraction angles of the distal limbs and vertical displacement curves of the upper body. Gait analysis was performed by letting 17 dairy cows walk in a straight line at their own chosen pace while equipped with IMU sensors on tubera sacrale, left and right tuber coxae (LTC and RTC), back, withers, head, neck and all four lower limbs. Data intervals with stride by stride regularity were selected based on video data. For temporal parameters, the median was calculated and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were estimated based on linear mixed model (LMM) analysis, while for limb and vertical displacement curves, the median and most typical curves were calculated. The temporal parameters and distal limb angles showed consistent results with low variance and LMM analysis showed non-overlapping CI for all temporal parameters. The distal limb angle curves showed a larger and steeper retraction angle range for the distal front limbs compared with the hind limbs. The vertical displacement curves of the sacrum, withers, LTC and RTC showed a consistent sinusoidal pattern while the head, back and collar curves were less consistent and showed more variation between and within cows. This kinematic description might allow to objectively differentiate between normal and lame gait in the future and determine the best anatomical location for sensor attachment for lameness detection purposes.

Improving gait classification in horses by using inertial measurement unit (IMU) generated data and machine learning.

For centuries humans have been fascinated by the natural beauty of horses in motion and their different gaits. Gait classification (GC) is commonly performed through visual assessment and reliable, automated methods for real-time objective GC in horses are warranted. In this study, we used a full body network of wireless, high sampling-rate sensors combined with machine learning to fully automatically classify gait. Using data from 120 horses of four different domestic breeds, equipped with seven motion sensors, we included 7576 strides from eight different gaits. GC was trained using several machine-learning approaches, both from feature-extracted data and from raw sensor data. Our best GC model achieved 97% accuracy. Our technique facilitated accurate, GC that enables in-depth biomechanical studies and allows for highly accurate phenotyping of gait for genetic research and breeding. Our approach lends itself for potential use in other quadrupedal species without the need for developing gait/animal specific algorithms.

Correction: Automatic hoof-on and -off detection in horses using hoof-mounted inertial measurement unit sensors.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0233266.].

Correction: Automatic detection of break-over phase onset in horses using hoof-mounted inertial measurement unit sensors.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0233649.].

Automatic hoof-on and -off detection in horses using hoof-mounted inertial measurement unit sensors.

For gait classification, hoof-on and hoof-off events are fundamental locomotion characteristics of interest. These events can be measured with inertial measurement units (IMUs) which measure the acceleration and angular velocity in three directions. The aim of this study was to present two algorithms for automatic detection of hoof-events from the acceleration and angular velocity signals measured by hoof-mounted IMUs in walk and trot on a hard surface. Seven Warmblood horses were equipped with two wireless IMUs, which were attached to the lateral wall of the right front (RF) and hind (RH) hooves. Horses were walked and trotted on a lead over a force plate for internal validation. The agreement between the algorithms for the acceleration and angular velocity signals with the force plate was evaluated by Bland Altman analysis and linear mixed model analysis. These analyses were performed for both hoof-on and hoof-off detection and for both algorithms separately. For the hoof-on detection, the angular velocity algorithm was the most accurate with an accuracy between 2.39 and 12.22 ms and a precision of around 13.80 ms, depending on gait and hoof. For hoof-off detection, the acceleration algorithm was the most accurate with an accuracy of 3.20 ms and precision of 6.39 ms, independent of gait and hoof. These algorithms look highly promising for gait classification purposes although the applicability of these algorithms should be investigated under different circumstances, such as different surfaces and different hoof trimming conditions.

Automatic detection of break-over phase onset in horses using hoof-mounted inertial measurement unit sensors.

A prolonged break-over phase might be an indication of a variety of musculoskeletal disorders and can be measured with optical motion capture (OMC) systems, inertial measurement units (IMUs) and force plates. The aim of this study was to present two algorithms for automatic detection of the break-over phase onset from the acceleration and angular velocity signals measured by hoof-mounted IMUs in walk and trot on a hard surface. The performance of these algorithms was evaluated by internal validation with an OMC system and a force plate separately. Seven Warmblood horses were equipped with two wireless IMUs which were attached to the lateral wall of the right front (RF) and hind (RH) hooves. Horses were walked and trotted over a force plate for internal validation while simultaneously the 3D position of three reflective markers, attached to lateral heel, lateral toe and lateral coronet of each hoof, were measured by six infrared cameras of an OMC system. The performance of the algorithms was evaluated by linear mixed model analysis. The acceleration algorithm was the most accurate with an accuracy between -9 and 23 ms and a precision around 24 ms (against OMC system), and an accuracy between -37 and 20 ms and a precision around 29 ms (against force plate), depending on gait and hoof. This algorithm seems promising for quantification of the break-over phase onset although the applicability for clinical purposes, such as lameness detection and evaluation of trimming and shoeing techniques, should be investigated more in-depth.

Lateral movement of the saddle relative to the equine spine in rising and sitting trot on a treadmill.

Saddle slip, defined as a progressive lateral displacement of the saddle during ridden exercise, has recently been given attention in the scientific press as a potential sign of lameness. The aim of this study was to objectively quantify the normal lateral movement (oscillations) of the saddle relative to the horse in non-lame horses, and associate this movement to the movements of the horse and rider. Data from seven Warmblood dressage horses competing at Grand Prix (n = 6) or FEI Intermediate (n = 1) level, ridden by their usual riders, were used. Simultaneous kinetic, kinematic and saddle pressure measurements were conducted during sitting and rising trot on a force-measuring treadmill. The maximum lateral movement of the caudal part of the saddle relative to the horse's spine (MAX) was determined for each diagonal step. A mixed model was applied, with MAX as outcome, and T6 and S3 vertical position, rigid body rotation angles (roll, pitch, yaw) of the horse's and rider's pelvis, vertical ground reaction forces, saddle force, and rider position (rising in rising trot, sitting in rising trot or sitting in sitting trot) as explanatory variables. The least square means for MAX were 14.3 (SE 4.7) mm and 23.9 (SE 4.7) mm for rising and sitting in rising trot, and 20.3 (SE 4.7) mm for sitting trot. A 10 mm increase in maximum pelvic height at push off increased MAX by 1.4 mm (p<0.0001). One degree increase in rider pelvis roll decreased MAX 1.1 mm, and one degree increase in rider pelvis yaw increased MAX 0.7 mm (both p<0.0001). The linear relationships found between MAX and movements of both horse and rider implies that both horse and rider movement asymmetries are reflected in the lateral movements or oscillations of the saddle in non-lame horses.

Vertical movement symmetry of the withers in horses with induced forelimb and hindlimb lameness at trot.

BACKGROUND: The main criteria for lameness assessment in horses are head movement for forelimb lameness and pelvic movement for hindlimb lameness. However, compensatory head nod in horses with primary hindlimb lameness is a well-known phenomenon. This compensatory head nod movement can be easily misinterpreted as a sign of primary ipsilateral forelimb lameness. Therefore, discriminating compensatory asymmetries from primary directly pain-related movement asymmetries is a prerequisite for successful lameness assessment. OBJECTIVES: To investigate the association between head, withers and pelvis movement asymmetry in horses with induced forelimb and hindlimb lameness. STUDY DESIGN: Experimental study. METHODS: In 10 clinically sound Warmblood riding horses, forelimb and hindlimb lameness were induced using a sole pressure model. The horses were then trotted on a treadmill. Three-dimensional optical motion capture was used to collect kinematic data from reflective markers attached to the poll, withers and tubera sacrale. The magnitude and side (left or right) of the following symmetry parameters, vertical difference in minimum position, maximum position and range-up were calculated for head, withers, and pelvis. Mixed models were used to analyse data from induced forelimb and hindlimb lameness. RESULTS: For each mm increase in pelvic asymmetry in response to hindlimb lameness induction, withers movement asymmetry increased by 0.35-0.55 mm, but towards the contralateral side. In induced forelimb lameness, for each mm increase in head movement asymmetry, withers movement asymmetry increased by 0.05-0.10 mm, in agreement with the head movement asymmetry direction, both indicating lameness in the induced forelimb. MAIN LIMITATIONS: Results must be confirmed in clinically lame horses trotting overground. CONCLUSIONS: The vertical asymmetry pattern of the withers discriminated a head nod associated with true forelimb lameness from the compensatory head movement asymmetry caused by primary hindlimb lameness. Measuring movement symmetry of the withers may, thus, aid in determining primary lameness location.

On the brink of daily clinical application of objective gait analysis: What evidence do we have so far from studies using an induced lameness model?

Quantitative gait analysis has the potential to offer objective and unbiased gait information that can assist clinical decision-making. In recent years, a growing number of gait analysis systems have come onto the market, highlighting the demand for such technology in equine orthopaedics. However, it is imperative that the measured variables which are used as outcome parameters are supported by scientific evidence and that the interpretation of such measurements is backed by a proper understanding of the biomechanical principles of equine locomotion. This review, which is based on studies on experimentally induced lameness, summarises the currently most widely used methods for gait analysis and the available evidence concerning gait parameters that can be used to quantify gait changes due to lameness. These are discussed regarding their current and future potential for routine clinical application.

Quantification of the effect of instrumentation error in objective gait assessment in the horse on hindlimb symmetry parameters.

BACKGROUND: Objective gait analysis is becoming more popular as a tool assisting veterinarians during the clinical lameness exam. At present, there is only limited information on the effect of misplacement of markers/motion-sensors. OBJECTIVES: To investigate and describe the effect of marker misplacement on commonly calculated pelvic symmetry parameters. STUDY DESIGN: Experimental study. METHODS: Each horse was equipped with custom-made devices consisting of several reflective markers arranged in a predefined manner with a reference marker correctly positioned regarding the anatomical landmark and several misplaced markers along the sagittal and transverse planes. Linear regression analysis was used to estimate the effect of marker misplacement. RESULTS: For the tubera sacrale, each cm of left/right misplacement led to a difference in minimum position of the pelvis (PDmin) of ±1.67 mm (95% CI 1.54-1.8 mm) (P<0.001); maximum position of the pelvis (PDmax) was affected by ±0.2 mm (95% CI 0.071-0.33 mm) (P = 0.003). With respect to cranial/caudal misplacement, each cm of misplacement resulted in a PDmin difference of ±0.04 mm (95% CI -0.09 to 0.16 mm) (P = 0.56) and a PDmax difference of ±0.008 mm (95% CI -0.13 to 0.12 mm) (P = 0.9). For the tubera coxae, each cm of vertical misplacement led to a difference in the displacement amplitude between left and right tubera coxae (Hip-Hike_Diff) of ±1.56 mm (95% CI 1.35-1.77 mm) (P<0.001); for the cranial/caudal misplacement, this was ±0.82 mm (95% CI 0.66-0.97 mm) (P<0.001). MAIN LIMITATIONS: Only three horses were used in this experiment and the study design did not permit to determine the influence of marker misplacement on the evaluation of different degrees of lameness. CONCLUSIONS: Marker misplacement significantly affects calculated symmetry parameters of the pelvis. The observed errors are overall small but significant. In cases of mildly asymmetrical horses, this error might influence the decision-making process whereas in more severe asymmetries, the influence of the error effect may become less significant.

Head, withers and pelvic movement asymmetry and their relative timing in trot in racing Thoroughbreds in training.

BACKGROUND: Horses show compensatory head movement in hindlimb lameness and compensatory pelvis movement in forelimb lameness but little is known about the relationship of withers movement symmetry with head and pelvic asymmetry in horses with naturally occurring gait asymmetries. OBJECTIVES: To document head, withers and pelvic movement asymmetry and timing differences in horses with naturally occurring gait asymmetries. STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective analysis of gait data. METHODS: Head, withers and pelvic movement asymmetry and timing of displacement minima and maxima were quantified from inertial sensors in 163 Thoroughbreds during trot-ups on hard ground. Horses were divided into 4 subgroups using the direction of head and withers movement asymmetry. Scatter plots of head vs. pelvic movement asymmetry illustrated how the head-withers relationship distinguishes between contralateral and ipsilateral head-pelvic movement asymmetry. Independent t test or Mann-Whitney U test (P<0.05) compared pelvic movement asymmetry and timing differences between groups. RESULTS: The relationship between head and withers asymmetry (i.e. same sided or opposite sided asymmetry) predicts the relationship between head and pelvic asymmetry in 69-77% of horses. Pelvic movement symmetry was significantly different between horses with same sign vs. opposite sign of head-withers asymmetry (P<0.0001). Timing of the maximum head height reached after contralateral ('sound') stance was delayed compared to withers (P = 0.02) and pelvis (P = 0.04) in horses with contralateral head-withers asymmetry. MAIN LIMITATIONS: The clinical lameness status of the horses was not investigated. CONCLUSION: In the Thoroughbreds with natural gait asymmetries investigated here, the direction of head vs. withers movement asymmetry identifies the majority of horses with ipsilateral and contralateral head and pelvic movement asymmetries. Withers movement should be further investigated for differentiating between forelimb and hindlimb lame horses. Horses with opposite sided head and withers asymmetry significantly delay the upward movement of the head after 'sound' forelimb stance.

Vertical head and pelvic movement symmetry at the trot in dogs with induced supporting limb lameness.

Compensatory limb loading has been studied in lame dogs; however, little is known about how these compensations relate to motion of the head and pelvis, assessment of which is an important component of lameness examinations. The aim of this study was to describe the patterns of vertical head and pelvic motion symmetry at the trot in dogs with induced supporting limb lameness in the forelimbs or hind limbs. Ten sound dogs were trotted on a treadmill before and after temporary induction of moderate lameness (grade 2/5) in each limb. Reflective markers were located on the head, pelvis and right forelimb, and kinematic data were captured with a motion capture system. Upper body symmetry parameters were calculated, including differences in the highest (HDmax) and in the lowest (HDmin) positions of the head, and in the highest (PDmax) and in the lowest (PDmin) positions of the mid-pelvis, with a value of zero indicating symmetry. The head was lowered more during the sound limb stance phase and lowered less during the lame limb stance phase in supporting forelimb lameness (HDmin: 4.6mm in dogs when sound, -18.3mm when left limb lameness was induced and 20.5mm when right limb lameness was induced). The mid-pelvis was lowered more during the sound limb stance phase and lowered and lifted less during the lame limb stance phase in supporting hind limb lameness (PDmin: 1mm in dogs when sound, -10.1mm in left limb lameness and 8.4mm in right limb lameness). The hip of the lame side, measured at the level of the greater trochanter, had an increased downwards displacement during the lame limb swing phase (-21mm in left hind limb lameness, P=0.005; 23.4mm in right hind limb lameness, P=0.007). Asymmetry in the lowering of the head or mid-pelvis is a more sensitive indicator of supporting forelimb and hind limb lameness, respectively, than asymmetry in the raising of the head. Increased displacement of the hip ('hip drop' of the lame side during its swing phase) is a good indicator of hind limb lameness in dogs.

Inertial sensor-based system for lameness detection in trotting dogs with induced lameness.

Lameness detection can be challenging in dogs, as reflected in the reported low inter-rater agreement when visually assessing lameness. The aim of this study was to use an inertial sensor-based system to detect and quantify induced distal and proximal limb disturbances mimicking supporting and swinging limb lameness in dogs trotting on a treadmill by measuring vertical head and pelvic movement symmetry. Ten clinically sound dogs were equipped with inertial measurement units that were attached to the head, pelvis and right distal forelimb. Vertical head and pelvic movement symmetry were measured while dogs trotted on a treadmill, before and after the induction of moderate support or swinging fore- and hindlimb lameness. Four symmetry variables were calculated: the differences in displacement between the two lowest and between the two highest values of the head and pelvis per stride, respectively. These variables were defined as minimum head difference (HDmin), maximum head difference (HDmax), minimum pelvic difference (PDmin) and maximum pelvic difference (PDmax). Induction of supporting forelimb and hindlimb lameness produced significant changes in HDmin and PDmin, respectively. Swinging forelimb and hindlimb lameness produced significant changes in HDmax and PDmax, respectively. Additional compensatory ipsilateral forelimb and contralateral hindlimb movements were detected. Based on our findings, inertial sensor-based systems can be used to detect and quantify induced moderate lameness and differentiate between supporting and swinging limb lameness in dogs trotting on a treadmill. Further studies are needed to evaluate this method in dogs presented for clinical lameness evaluation and in overground locomotion.

Lungeing on hard and soft surfaces: Movement symmetry of trotting horses considered sound by their owners.

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Lungeing is often part of the clinical lameness examination. The difference in movement symmetry, which is a commonly employed lameness measure, has not been quantified between surfaces. OBJECTIVES: To compare head and pelvic movement symmetry between surfaces and reins during lungeing. STUDY DESIGN: Quantitative gait analysis in 23 horses considered sound by their owners. METHODS: Twenty-three horses were assessed in-hand and on the lunge on both reins on hard and soft surfaces with inertial sensors. Seven movement symmetry parameters were quantified and used to establish 2 groups, namely symmetrical (n = 9) and forelimb-lame horses (n = 14), based on values from straight-line assessment. Movement symmetry values for left rein measurements were side corrected to allow comparison of the amount of movement symmetry between reins. A mixed model (P<0.05) was used to study effects on movement symmetry of surface (hard/soft) and rein (inside/outside with respect to movement symmetry on the straight). RESULTS: In forelimb-lame horses, surface and rein were identified as significantly affecting all head movement symmetry measures (rein, all P<0.0001; surface, all P<0.042). In the symmetrical group, no significant influence of surface or rein was identified for head movement symmetry (rein, all P>0.245; surface, all P>0.073). No significant influence of surface or rein was identified for any of the pelvic movement symmetry measures in either group. CONCLUSIONS: While more symmetrical horses showed a consistent amount of movement symmetry across surfaces/reins, horses objectively quantified as lame on the straight showed decreased movement symmetry during lungeing, in particular with the lame limb on the inside of a hard circle. The variation within group questions straight-line movement symmetry as a sole measure of lameness without quantification of movement symmetry on the lunge, ideally on hard and soft surfaces to evaluate differences between reins and surfaces. In future, thresholds for lungeing need to be determined using simultaneous visual and objective assessment.

Rater agreement of visual lameness assessment in horses during lungeing.

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Lungeing is an important part of lameness examinations as the circular path may accentuate low-grade lameness. Movement asymmetries related to the circular path, to compensatory movements and to pain make the lameness evaluation complex. Scientific studies have shown high inter-rater variation when assessing lameness during straight line movement. OBJECTIVES: The aim was to estimate inter- and intra-rater agreement of equine veterinarians evaluating lameness from videos of sound and lame horses during lungeing and to investigate the influence of veterinarians' experience and the objective degree of movement asymmetry on rater agreement. STUDY DESIGN: Cross-sectional observational study. METHODS: Video recordings and quantitative gait analysis with inertial sensors were performed in 23 riding horses of various breeds. The horses were examined at trot on a straight line and during lungeing on soft or hard surfaces in both directions. One video sequence was recorded per condition and the horses were classified as forelimb lame, hindlimb lame or sound from objective straight line symmetry measurements. Equine veterinarians (n = 86), including 43 with >5 years of orthopaedic experience, participated in a web-based survey and were asked to identify the lamest limb on 60 videos, including 10 repeats. The agreements between (inter-rater) and within (intra-rater) veterinarians were analysed with κ statistics (Fleiss, Cohen). RESULTS: Inter-rater agreement κ was 0.31 (0.38/0.25 for experienced/less experienced) and higher for forelimb (0.33) than for hindlimb lameness (0.11) or soundness (0.08) evaluation. Median intra-rater agreement κ was 0.57. CONCLUSIONS: Inter-rater agreement was poor for less experienced raters, and for all raters when evaluating hindlimb lameness. Since identification of the lame limb/limbs is a prerequisite for successful diagnosis, treatment and recovery, the high inter-rater variation when evaluating lameness on the lunge is likely to influence the accuracy and repeatability of lameness examinations and, indirectly, the efficacy of treatment.