Life after death? Exploring biochemical and molecular changes following organismal death in green turtles, Chelonia mydas (Linnaeus, 1758).

Green turtles, Chelonia mydas, have been included in biomonitoring efforts given its status as an endangered species. Many studies, however, rely on samples from stranded animals, raising the question of how death affects important biochemical and molecular biomarkers. The goal of this study was to investigate post mortem fluctuations in the antioxidant response and metabolism of carbohydrates in the liver of C. mydas. Liver samples were obtained from six green turtles which were submitted to rehabilitation and euthanized due to the impossibility of recovery. Samples were collected immediately after death (t = 0) and at various time intervals (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 12, 18 and 24 h post mortem), frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored at -80 °C. The activities of catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), glutathione reductase (GR) and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH) were analyzed, as were the levels of lipid peroxidation, glycogen concentration, RNA integrity (RNA IQ) and transcript levels of carbonic anhydrase and pyruvate carboxylase genes. Comparison between post mortem intervals showed a temporal stability for all the biomarkers evaluated, suggesting that changes in biochemical and molecular parameters following green turtle death are not immediate, and metabolism may remain somewhat unaltered up to 24 h after death. Such stability may be associated with the overall lower metabolism of turtles, especially under an oxygen deprivation scenario such as organismal death. Overall, this study supports the use of biomarkers in sea turtles sampled within a period of 24 h post mortem for biomonitoring purposes, though it is recommended that post mortem fluctuations of particular biomarkers be evaluated prior to their application, given that proteins may show varying degrees of susceptibility to proteolysis.

Homophily around specialized foraging underlies dolphin social preferences.

Individuals often associate socially with those who behave the same way. This principle, homophily, could structure populations into distinct social groups. We tested this hypothesis in a bottlenose dolphin population that appeared to be clustered around a specialized foraging tactic involving cooperation with net-casting fishermen, but in which other potential drivers of such social structure have never been assessed. We measured and controlled for the contribution of sex, age, genetic relatedness, home range and foraging tactics on social associations to test for homophily effects. Dolphins tended to group with others having similar home ranges and frequency of using the specialized foraging tactic, but not other traits. Such social preferences were particularly clear when dolphins were not foraging, showing that homophily extends beyond simply participating in a specific tactic. Combined, these findings highlight the need to account for multiple drivers of group formation across behavioural contexts to determine true social affiliations. We suggest that homophily around behavioural specialization can be a major driver of social patterns, with implications for other social processes. If homophily based on specialized tactics underlies animal social structures more widely, then it may be important in modulating opportunities for social learning, and therefore influence patterns of cultural transmission.

Relating diving behavior and antioxidant status: Insights from oxidative stress biomarkers in the blood of two distinct divers, Mirounga leonina and Arctocephalus australis.

Pinnipeds rely upon diving to perform essential activities, including foraging. As pulmonated animals, oxygen privation experienced during submergence represents a considerable challenge both physiologically and biochemically. Routine exposure to hypoxia and the rapid transitions between ischemia/reperfusion of tissues leads to extremely high reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, which must be opposed by antioxidant defenses to avoid oxidative stress. The diving behaviors and capabilities of pinnipeds are very diverse, resulting in distinct metabolic responses among species. To assess whether these characteristics reflect the antioxidant status of two marine diving mammals with distinct diving capacities, oxidative stress biomarkers were measured in the blood of Arctocephalus australis (n=11) and Mirounga leonina (n=12). All of the biomarkers analyzed in M. leonina were significantly higher than those of A. australis, suggesting that higher antioxidant content is needed to counteract the high ROS production associated with the long submergence times (24.3±5.6min) of this species, which are nearly ten times greater than those of A. australis (2.8±0.5min). Thus, the constitutive antioxidant defenses of both species are of distinct magnitudes due to their inherent diving capacity.