Glutamatergic metabolites are associated with visual plasticity in humans.

Long-term potentiation (LTP) is a basic cellular mechanism underlying learning and memory. LTP-like plasticity in the visual cortex can be induced by high frequency visual stimulation in rodents and humans. Since glutamate plays a fundamental role in LTP, this study investigated if visual cortical glutamate and glutamine levels, measured by proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS), relate to visual plasticity in humans. Since plasticity requires a delicate excitation and inhibition balance, GABA was also explored. Eighteen healthy participants completed MRS and a visual fMRI paradigm. Results revealed enhanced fMRI activations after high frequency visual stimulation, suggesting visual plasticity occurred. Higher activations were associated with higher resting glutamine levels after family wise error-correction. Exploratory analyses revealed that higher resting glutamate and GABA levels were associated with visual plasticity, suggesting there may be a critical excitation-inhibition balance necessary for experience dependent plasticity. This is the first empirical evidence that resting glutamine levels and potentially glutamate and GABA levels are associated with visual plasticity in humans.

Generating high-purity cardiac and endothelial derivatives from patterned mesoderm using human pluripotent stem cells.

Human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) provide a valuable model for the study of human development and a means to generate a scalable source of cells for therapeutic applications. This protocol specifies cell fate efficiently into cardiac and endothelial lineages from hPSCs. The protocol takes 2 weeks to complete and requires experience in hPSC culture and differentiation techniques. Building on lessons taken from early development, this monolayer-directed differentiation protocol uses different concentrations of activin A and bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP4) to polarize cells into mesodermal subtypes that reflect mid-primitive-streak cardiogenic mesoderm and posterior-primitive-streak hemogenic mesoderm. This differentiation platform provides a basis for generating distinct cardiovascular progenitor populations that enable the derivation of cardiomyocytes and functionally distinct endothelial cell (EC) subtypes from cardiogenic versus hemogenic mesoderm with high efficiency without cell sorting. ECs derived from cardiogenic and hemogenic mesoderm can be matured into >90% CD31+/VE-cadherin+ definitive ECs. To test the functionality of ECs at different stages of differentiation, we provide methods for assaying the blood-forming potential and de novo lumen-forming activity of ECs. To our knowledge, this is the first protocol that provides a common platform for directed differentiation of cardiomyocytes and endothelial subtypes from hPSCs. This protocol yields endothelial differentiation efficiencies exceeding those of previously published protocols. Derivation of these cell types is a critical step toward understanding the basis of disease and generating cells with therapeutic potential.

Depth-resolved 3D visualization of coronary microvasculature with optical microangiography.

In this study, we propose a novel implementation of optical coherence tomography-based angiography combined with ex vivo perfusion of fixed hearts to visualize coronary microvascular structure and function. The extracorporeal perfusion of Intralipid solution allows depth-resolved angiographic imaging, control of perfusion pressure, and high-resolution optical microangiography. The imaging technique offers new opportunities for microcirculation research in the heart, which has been challenging due to motion artifacts and the lack of independent control of pressure and flow. With the ability to precisely quantify structural and functional features, this imaging platform has broad potential for the study of the pathophysiology of microvasculature in the heart as well as other organs.

Micropatterning and Assembly of 3D Microvessels.

In vitro platforms to study endothelial cells and vascular biology are largely limited to 2D endothelial cell culture, flow chambers with polymer or glass based substrates, and hydrogel-based tube formation assays. These assays, while informative, do not recapitulate lumen geometry, proper extracellular matrix, and multi-cellular proximity, which play key roles in modulating vascular function. This manuscript describes an injection molding method to generate engineered vessels with diameters on the order of 100 µm. Microvessels are fabricated by seeding endothelial cells in a microfluidic channel embedded within a native type I collagen hydrogel. By incorporating parenchymal cells within the collagen matrix prior to channel formation, specific tissue microenvironments can be modeled and studied. Additional modulations of hydrodynamic properties and media composition allow for control of complex vascular function within the desired microenvironment. This platform allows for the study of perivascular cell recruitment, blood-endothelium interactions, flow response, and tissue-microvascular interactions. Engineered microvessels offer the ability to isolate the influence from individual components of a vascular niche and precisely control its chemical, mechanical, and biological properties to study vascular biology in both health and disease.

Stromal Cells in Dense Collagen Promote Cardiomyocyte and Microvascular Patterning in Engineered Human Heart Tissue.

Cardiac tissue engineering is a strategy to replace damaged contractile tissue and model cardiac diseases to discover therapies. Current cardiac and vascular engineering approaches independently create aligned contractile tissue or perfusable vasculature, but a combined vascularized cardiac tissue remains to be achieved. Here, we sought to incorporate a patterned microvasculature into engineered heart tissue, which balances the competing demands from cardiomyocytes to contract the matrix versus the vascular lumens that need structural support. Low-density collagen hydrogels (1.25 mg/mL) permit human embryonic stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes (hESC-CMs) to form a dense contractile tissue but cannot support a patterned microvasculature. Conversely, high collagen concentrations (density ≥6 mg/mL) support a patterned microvasculature, but the hESC-CMs lack cell-cell contact, limiting their electrical communication, structural maturation, and tissue-level contractile function. When cocultured with matrix remodeling stromal cells, however, hESC-CMs structurally mature and form anisotropic constructs in high-density collagen. Remodeling requires the stromal cells to be in proximity with hESC-CMs. In addition, cocultured cardiac constructs in dense collagen generate measurable active contractions (on the order of 0.1 mN/mm(2)) and can be paced up to 2 Hz. Patterned microvascular networks in these high-density cocultured cardiac constructs remain patent through 2 weeks of culture, and hESC-CMs show electrical synchronization. The ability to maintain microstructural control within engineered heart tissue enables generation of more complex features, such as cellular alignment and a vasculature. Successful incorporation of these features paves the way for the use of large scale engineered tissues for myocardial regeneration and cardiac disease modeling.

Inhibition of ß-catenin signaling respecifies anterior-like endothelium into beating human cardiomyocytes.

During vertebrate development, mesodermal fate choices are regulated by interactions between morphogens such as activin/nodal, BMPs and Wnt/ß-catenin that define anterior-posterior patterning and specify downstream derivatives including cardiomyocyte, endothelial and hematopoietic cells. We used human embryonic stem cells to explore how these pathways control mesodermal fate choices in vitro. Varying doses of activin A and BMP4 to mimic cytokine gradient polarization in the anterior-posterior axis of the embryo led to differential activity of Wnt/ß-catenin signaling and specified distinct anterior-like (high activin/low BMP) and posterior-like (low activin/high BMP) mesodermal populations. Cardiogenic mesoderm was generated under conditions specifying anterior-like mesoderm, whereas blood-forming endothelium was generated from posterior-like mesoderm, and vessel-forming CD31(+) endothelial cells were generated from all mesoderm origins. Surprisingly, inhibition of ß-catenin signaling led to the highly efficient respecification of anterior-like endothelium into beating cardiomyocytes. Cardiac respecification was not observed in posterior-derived endothelial cells. Thus, activin/BMP gradients specify distinct mesodermal subpopulations that generate cell derivatives with unique angiogenic, hemogenic and cardiogenic properties that should be useful for understanding embryogenesis and developing therapeutics.

Maintenance of interphase chromosome compaction and homolog pairing in Drosophila is regulated by the condensin cap-h2 and its partner Mrg15.

Dynamic regulation of chromosome structure and organization is critical for fundamental cellular processes such as gene expression and chromosome segregation. Condensins are conserved chromosome-associated proteins that regulate a variety of chromosome dynamics, including axial shortening, lateral compaction, and homolog pairing. However, how the in vivo activities of condensins are regulated and how functional interactors target condensins to chromatin are not well understood. To better understand how Drosophila melanogaster condensin is regulated, we performed a yeast two-hybrid screen and identified the chromo-barrel domain protein Mrg15 to interact with the Cap-H2 condensin subunit. Genetic interactions demonstrate that Mrg15 function is required for Cap-H2-mediated unpairing of polytene chromosomes in ovarian nurse cells and salivary gland cells. In diploid tissues, transvection assays demonstrate that Mrg15 inhibits transvection at Ubx and cooperates with Cap-H2 to antagonize transvection at yellow. In cultured cells, we show that levels of chromatin-bound Cap-H2 protein are partially dependent on Mrg15 and that Cap-H2-mediated homolog unpairing is suppressed by RNA interference depletion of Mrg15. Thus, maintenance of interphase chromosome compaction and homolog pairing status requires both Mrg15 and Cap-H2. We propose a model where the Mrg15 and Cap-H2 protein-protein interaction may serve to recruit Cap-H2 to chromatin and facilitates compaction of interphase chromatin.

SCFSlimb ubiquitin ligase suppresses condensin II-mediated nuclear reorganization by degrading Cap-H2.

Condensin complexes play vital roles in chromosome condensation during mitosis and meiosis. Condensin II uniquely localizes to chromatin throughout the cell cycle and, in addition to its mitotic duties, modulates chromosome organization and gene expression during interphase. Mitotic condensin activity is regulated by phosphorylation, but mechanisms that regulate condensin II during interphase are unclear. Here, we report that condensin II is inactivated when its subunit Cap-H2 is targeted for degradation by the SCF(Slimb) ubiquitin ligase complex and that disruption of this process dramatically changed interphase chromatin organization. Inhibition of SCF(Slimb) function reorganized interphase chromosomes into dense, compact domains and disrupted homologue pairing in both cultured Drosophila cells and in vivo, but these effects were rescued by condensin II inactivation. Furthermore, Cap-H2 stabilization distorted nuclear envelopes and dispersed Cid/CENP-A on interphase chromosomes. Therefore, SCF(Slimb)-mediated down-regulation of condensin II is required to maintain proper organization and morphology of the interphase nucleus.

Mutant huntingtin in glial cells exacerbates neurological symptoms of Huntington disease mice.

Huntington disease (HD) is caused by an expansion of the polyglutamine (polyQ) repeat (>37Q) in huntingtin (htt), and age of onset is inversely correlated with the length of the polyQ repeat. Mutant htt with expanded polyQ is ubiquitously expressed in various types of cells, including glia, but causes selective neurodegeneration. Our recent study demonstrated that expression of the N-terminal mutant htt with a large polyQ repeat (160Q) in astrocytes is sufficient to induce neurological symptoms in mice (Bradford, J., Shin, J. Y., Roberts, M., Wang, C. E., Li, X.-J., and Li, S. H. (2009) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 106, 22480-22485). Because glia-neuron interactions are critical for maintaining the normal function and survival of neurons in the brain and because mutant htt is more abundant in neurons than in glial cells, it is important to investigate whether glial htt can still contribute to HD pathology when mutant htt is abundantly expressed in neuronal cells. We generated transgenic mice that express mutant htt with 98Q in astrocytes. Unlike our recently generated htt-160Q transgenic mice, htt-98Q mice do not show obvious neurological phenotypes, suggesting that the length of the polyQ repeat determines the severity of glial dysfunction. However, htt-98Q mice show increased susceptibility to glutamate-induced seizure. Mice expressing mutant htt in astrocytes were mated with N171-82Q mice that express mutant htt primarily in neuronal cells. Double transgenic mice expressing mutant htt in both neuronal and glial cells display more severe neurological symptoms and earlier death than N171-82Q mice. These findings indicate a role of glial mutant htt in exacerbating HD neuropathology and underscore the importance of improving glial function in treating HD.

Expression of mutant huntingtin in mouse brain astrocytes causes age-dependent neurological symptoms.

Huntington disease (HD) is an inherited neurological disorder caused by a polyglutamine expansion in the protein huntingtin and is characterized by selective neurodegeneration that preferentially occurs in striatal medium spiny neurons. Because the medium spiny neurons are innervated abundantly by glutamatergic axons from cortical neurons, the preferential degeneration in the striatal neurons supports the glutamate excitotoxicity theory for HD pathogenesis. Thus, glutamate uptake by glia may be particularly important for preventing glutamate excitotoxicity in HD. Although mutant huntingtin is expressed ubiquitously in various types of cells, it accumulates and forms aggregates in fewer glial cells than in neuronal cells. It remains largely unknown whether and how mutant huntingtin in glia can contribute to the neurological symptoms of HD. We generated transgenic mice that express N-terminal mutant huntingtin in astrocytes, a major type of glial cell that remove extracellular glutamate in the brain. Although transgenic mutant huntingtin in astrocytes is expressed below the endogenous level, it can cause age-dependent neurological phenotypes in transgenic mice. Mice expressing mutant huntingtin show body weight loss, have motor function deficits, and die earlier than wild-type or control transgenic mice. We also found that mutant huntingtin in astrocytes decreases the expression of glutamate transporter by increasing its binding to Sp1 and reducing the association of Sp1 with the promoter of glutamate transporter. These results imply an important role for glial mutant huntingtin in HD pathology and suggest possibilities for treatment.

Transcriptional dysregulation of TrkA associates with neurodegeneration in spinocerebellar ataxia type 17.

TATA binding protein (TBP), a universal transcription factor, is broadly required by nuclear RNA polymerases for the initiation of transcription. TBP contains a polymorphic polyglutamine tract in its N-terminal region, and expansion of this tract leads to spinocerebellar ataxia type 17 (SCA17), one of nine dominantly inherited neurodegenerative diseases caused by polyglutamine expansion in the affected proteins. The expanded polyglutamine proteins are ubiquitously expressed, but cause selective and characteristic neurodegeneration in distinct brain regions in each disease. Unlike many other polyglutamine proteins, whose functions are not yet fully understood, TBP is a well-characterized transcription factor that is restricted to the nucleus. Thus, investigating how mutant TBP mediates neuropathology should help elucidate the mechanisms by which transcriptional dysregulation contributes to neuronal dysfunction and/or neurodegeneration in polyglutamine diseases. To this end, we characterized cellular and mouse models expressing polyQ-expanded TBP. The cell model exhibits characteristic features of neuronal dysfunction, including decreased cell viability and defective neurite outgrowth. We found that the high-affinity nerve growth factor receptor, TrkA, is down-regulated by mutant TBP in cells. Down-regulation of TrkA also occurs in the cerebellum of SCA17 transgenic mice prior to Purkinje cell degeneration. Mutant TBP binds more Sp1, reduces its occupancy of the TrkA promoter and inhibits the activity of the TrkA promoter. These findings suggest that the transcriptional down-regulation of TrkA by mutant TBP contributes to SCA17 pathogenesis.

Sex-dependent effect of BAG1 in ameliorating motor deficits of Huntington disease transgenic mice.

The pathogenesis of Huntington disease (HD) is attributed to the misfolding of huntingtin (htt) caused by an expanded polyglutamine (polyQ) domain. Considerable effort has been devoted to identifying molecules that can prevent or reduce htt misfolding and the associated neuropathology. Although overexpression of chaperones is known to reduce htt cytotoxicity in cellular models, only modest protection is seen with Hsp70 overexpression in HD mouse models. Because the activity of Hsp70 is modulated by co-chaperones, an interesting issue is whether the in vivo effects of chaperones on polyQ protein toxicity are dependent on other modulators. In the present study, we focused on BAG1, a co-chaperone that interacts with Hsp70 and regulates its activity. Of htt mice expressing the N171-82Q mutant, we found that male N171-82Q mice show a greater deficit in rotarod performance than female N171-82Q mice. This sex-dependent motor deficit was improved by crossing N171-82Q mice with transgenic mice overexpressing BAG1 in neurons. Transgenic BAG1 also reduces the levels of mutant htt in synaptosomal fraction of male HD mice. Overexpression of BAG1 augmented the effects of Hsp70 by reducing aggregation of mutant htt in cultured cells and improving neurite outgrowth in htt-transfected PC12 cells. These findings suggest that the effects of chaperones on HD pathology are influenced by both their modulators and sex-dependent factors.

Chemorheology of phenylboronate-salicylhydroxamate crosslinked hydrogel networks with a sulfonated polymer backbone.

Hydrogel networks crosslinked with polymer-bound phenylboronic acid (PBA) and salicylhydroxamic acid (SHA) demonstrate pH-reversible gel behavior due to the pH-dependent equilibrium of the crosslinking moieties that form the gel network. Furthermore, the pH at which gels behave dynamically can be controlled by use of a polyelectrolyte backbone. Here we report on the frequency-dependent chemorheological characterization of PBA-SHA crosslinked hydrogel networks with a sulfonated polymer backbone. Our results suggest that the anionic nature of the polymers allows reversible crosslinking at neutral pH that an otherwise neutral-backboned PBA-SHA crosslinked network cannot, and that these charge-induced dynamics can be effectively screened by ions in solution. Moreover, moduli-frequency data can effectively be reduced into a single master curve with a neutral-backboned PBA-SHA gel data set as the reference condition.

Temperature and pH sensitive hydrogels: an approach towards smart semen-triggered vaginal microbicidal vehicles.

Microbicides are drug delivery systems (DDSs) for the prevention of sexual transmission of HIV and other STDs. A topically applied vaginal microbicidal gel should provide uniform coating of vaginal tissue, retention of this gel layer prior to intercourse, and controlled release kinetics of antivirals to inactivate the viral load potentially introduced during sexual activity. Here, we describe the microbicide-oriented characterization of a DDS made with a dual pH sensitive and thermosensitive smart polymer gel composed of a random terpolymer of N-isopropyl acrylamide, butyl methacrylate, and acrylic acid. The system was engineered to coat vaginal tissue with a stable gel layer and to release entrapped model agents in a burst release profile in response to the presence of the infecting agent: semen. The gel rheology, layer erosion properties, model drug release kinetics, and cytocompatibility of the terpolymer system were studied. Negligible erosion of the gel in the presence of vaginal fluid simulant suggests prolonged retention. Burst release of molecular and macromolecular model compounds was observed when the system's pH changed from the vaginal pH to the pH of semen, and cytotoxicity studies showed that the terpolymer is equally cytocompatible as a commonly used polymeric vaginal carrier.

Disulfide cross-linked hyaluronan hydrogels.

A new disulfide cross-linking strategy was developed to prepare hyaluronic acid (HA) hydrogel from thiol-modified HA. First, dithiobis(propanoic dihydrazide) (DTP) and dithiobis(butyric dihydrazide) (DTB) were synthesized and then coupled to HA with carbodiimide chemistry. Next, disulfide bonds of the initially formed gel were reduced using dithiothreitol (DTT) to give, after exhaustive dialysis, the corresponding thiol-modified macromolecular derivatives HA-DTPH and HA-DTBH. The degree of substitution of HA-DTPH and HA-DTBH could be controlled from 20% to 70% of available glucuronate carboxylic acid groups. The pK(a) values of the HA-thiol derivatives were determined spectrophotometrically to be pK(a) = 8.87 (HA-DTPH) and pK(a) = 9.01 (HA-DTBH). The thiol groups could be oxidized in air to reform disulfide linkages, which resulted in HA-DTPH and HA-DTBH hydrogel films. Further oxidation of these hydrogels with dilute H(2)O(2) created additional cross-links and afforded poorly swellable films. The disulfide cross-linking was reversible, and films could be again reduced to sols with DTT. Release of blue dextran from cross-linked films was used as a model for drug release. The rapid gelation of the HA-DTPH solution under physiological conditions was also achieved, which demonstrated the capacity for in situ cell encapsulation. Thus, L-929 murine fibroblasts were encapsulated in HA-DTPH hydrogel; these cells remained viable and proliferated during 3 days of culture in vitro.