Black racial identity and engagement during Black Lives Matter 2020: The role of age and multiracial status.

OBJECTIVE: The social category of race plays an important role in how people navigate their identities and social worlds, especially in societies where racial injustice is salient. The present study considers the racial identity experiences of Multiracial and monoracial Black adults in the United States during a race-salient moment: the 2020 Black Lives Matter (BLM) movement. Using survey data collected in the fall of 2020, our study seeks to understand racial identity and activism experiences among age-diverse monoracial and Multiracial Black people during BLM 2020. METHOD: Participants were 183 Black adults in the United States (73 Multiracial, 110 monoracial). Regressions were conducted to examine (a) how identity exploration and commitment differed by age and by Multiracial status during a time of heightened racial salience, and (b) how identity exploration and commitment was associated with BLM engagement. RESULTS: We found that Multiracial and monoracial individuals engage with racial identity differently across age groups, reflecting their different relationships with dominant societal narratives of race. We also found positive associations between racial identity and BLM engagement regardless of participants' Multiracial status or age. CONCLUSIONS: While our findings did underscore several commonalities across Multiracial and monoracial Black people, they also indicated a need to revisit the relevance of established (mono)racial identity development models for Multiracial individuals, especially outside of adolescence and young adulthood. Revisiting previous models is critical to engage with the m(ai)cro process of racial identity and how the cultural context of anti-Blackness and monoracism shapes individual development across the life course. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Research as resistance: Naming and dismantling the master narrative of "good" science.

The call for psychological science to make amends for "causing harm to communities of color and contributing to systemic inequities" (American Psychological Association, 2022a) requires a critical acknowledgment that science itself is not neutral but a sociopolitical and ideological endeavor. From its inception, psychology used science to produce what was framed as incontrovertible "hard" evidence of racial hierarchy, infallible "proof" that white people (i.e., cismale, heteronormative, and economically resourced white people) were superior to Indigenous and Black people. We first trace the historical links between postpositivist epistemology and the ideology of white supremacy in psychological science, showing that although explicitly racist science (e.g., eugenics) has faded, the widely shared and strictly enforced epistemological norms about what is (and is not) "good" science remain entrenched. We then outline three epistemic imperatives to resist this harmful master narrative: (a) embrace humanizing epistemologies, (b) listen and learn from those who have been systematically left out of science, and (c) recognize resistance as normative and necessary. We discuss how these imperatives, rooted in critical, feminist, and antiracist scholarship, disrupt oppression and guide us toward doing science that does good. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Exploring whether and how Black and White parents talk with their children about race: M(ai)cro race conversations about Black Lives Matter.

Previous research on parent-led race conversations reports robust racial differences in the content of race conversations between Black and white parents. It was unknown, however, whether these racial differences shifted in the months immediately following the summer of 2020 when there was heightened public attention directed toward white parents, specifically, to talk with children about racism. In the present study, we investigated whether and how Black (n = 344) and white (n = 381) parents talked about Black Lives Matter (BLM) with their 8- to 11-year-old children. Overall, 80% of parents (n = 725) reported talking about BLM, but Black parents were significantly more likely to discuss BLM than white parents (p = .008). Further qualitative analysis of the content of parents' reports showed that Black parents were significantly more likely than white parents to provide responses about BLM that acknowledge racial inequality in society or explicitly affirm/support Black lives. White parents, in contrast, were significantly more likely to discuss BLM by focusing on equality but without acknowledging racial injustice or to provide responses that lacked clarity and/or substance. Using the m(ai)cro model of human development (Rogers, Niwa, et al., 2021), we discuss how parents' reported race conversations are shaped by the sociopolitical context and their role in disrupting (or perpetuating) systemic racism through socialization. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Family Racial/Ethnic Socialization Through the Lens of Multiracial Black Identity: A M(ai)cro Analysis of Meaning-Making.

The role of family members in racial identity development is often constrained to conceptualizations of parental socialization, with a focus on socialization during childhood and adolescence. However, parents may continue to play a role in racial identity development as youth enter young adulthood and continue to explore who they are. Our study investigates how parents feature in the racial identity meaning-making of multiracial Black college students to understand the role that parents may continue to play for youth's identities as they age. We invoke a critical m(ai)cro perspective to fully consider how parent influence necessarily intertwines with macrosystem dynamics of anti-Blackness, white supremacy, and monoracism for multiracial Black youth's identity meaning-making in the context of Black Lives Matter. Through inductive analysis of semi-structured interviews with 11 multiracial Black ("Black + ") college students, we found that young adults mention parents or familial adults when discussing their racial identity to (1) recount parental guidance on racial identity, (2) illustrate the racial politics of multiracial identification, and (3) expose the nuances of navigating (un)shared identity spaces within the family. Our findings highlight the relevance of parental socialization in the adulthood years, and that parents are inextricably implicated in how youth are making sense of macrosystem dynamics of anti-Blackness and monoracism. We end with a discussion of takeaways for parents of multiracial youth.

From promoting healthy masculinities to nurturing healthy humans and societies: Commentary on Di Bianca and Mahalik (2022).

To extend the insightful points articulated by Di Bianca and Mahalik (2022), I bring into focus the landmark contributions of Carol Gilligan whose large body of scholarship (1982, 1993, 1995, 2011; Gilligan et al., 1990) on human development in a patriarchal society is largely overlooked in the present article. Gilligan's critique of patriarchy, power, and inequality in science and society pushes us to center the cultural ideological context in this conversation, which extends beyond boys and men and masculinity. Our efforts to promote healthy masculinities must coincide with (re)structuring society to center the margins and dismantle the cultural ideologies that engineer inequality and undermine the core human needs, capacities, and desires of all humans. Cultivating a culture of authentic relationships is not only the key to promoting healthy masculinities but the pathway to nurturing healthy humans and societies. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Studying Ethnic-Racial Identity among White Youth: White Supremacy as a Developmental Context.

As developmental scholars increasingly study ethnic and racial identity among white youth, careful reflection is needed regarding its framing, implementation, and interpretation. In this three-part conceptual paper, we offer a foundation for such reflection. First, we discuss the sociocultural context of white supremacy that shapes U.S. society, psychology, and adolescent development, and situate the study of ethnic and racial identity among white youth within this context. Second, we consider Janet Helms's White Racial Identity Development model, reviewing theory and research building on her argument that race-and whiteness, specifically-must be centered to achieve racial justice-oriented scholarship on white identity. We conclude by offering four guiding insights for conducting critical research on racial identity development among white youth.

A window into racial and socioeconomic status disparities in preschool disciplinary action using developmental methodology.

There are large differences in expulsions and suspensions on the basis of race starting in preschool and divergent explanations for their cause. The current study explores how developmental methodology can shed light on this vexing issue. We leverage two measures: (1) childcare provider complaints about children's behavior and their recommended disciplinary action (measured by parent report); and (2) observed disruptive behavior measured by a laboratory-based standardized observation tool, the Disruptive Behavior Diagnostic Observation Schedule (DB-DOS), among a large, sociodemographically diverse sample of children (n  =$\text{=}$  430; mean age  =$\text{=}$  4.79 years). We identified three latent class profiles on the basis of race/socioeconomic status (SES) and found disparities in childcare provider complaints based on profile membership. More specifically, children classified in the Black/Hispanic, poor and Black, nonpoor profiles both had significantly higher childcare provider complaints compared with children in the White/Hispanic, nonpoor profile. By contrast, there were no differences in observed disruptive behavior based on race/SES profiles. Finally, childcare provider complaints in preschool were associated with lower cognitive performance in elementary school, above and beyond observed disruptive behavior in preschool and race/SES profiles. Implications for classroom practice and contributions to the national debate on school disciplinary policies are discussed.

Beyond Ethnicity: Applying Helms's White Racial Identity Development Model Among White Youth.

Research on racial identity among Youth of Color has expanded considerably in recent years, but a parallel examination of racial identity among white youth has not occurred, reiterating whiteness as normative. We applied Janet Helms's White Racial Identity Development (WRID) model among white U.S. youth (8-14 years old) to address this research gap. WRID centers racism and white supremacy, offering a framework to analyze white racial identity in the context of systemic inequity. Using longitudinal, qualitative analysis, we found age-related change over time, with some evidence of increasing resistance to racism. There was high participant variability, however, indicating that socio-cognitive abilities alone cannot predict anti-racist white identity development. We discuss implications for racial identity research and social justice-orientated developmental science.

"[E]ven Though We Don't Have Everything We Build Our Own Thing": Exploring Black Girl Space.

In a racially stratified and oppressive society, Black youth must figure out who they are and what they can achieve while navigating dehumanizing stereotypes that devalue and disregard Black lives. In the current paper, we analyze focus group interviews with Black students at a predominately Black, all-girls high school to understand the meaning, significance, and potential of Black girl space through an intersectional and developmental lens. Results revealed the challenges and opportunities particularly with regard to the relational space (peers, sexuality, identity) and the structural space (extracurriculars, policies, and building structure). We discuss the potential of Black girl space and the broader implications for educational spaces to support Black girls' development to create a more equitable and impactful developmental science.

"Martin Luther King Fixed It": Children Making Sense of Racial Identity in a Colorblind Society.

Children in the United States grow up in a context wherein colorblindness and racism coexist. This article examined how colorblindness functions as a societal "master narrative" that shapes how children construct their own racial identities. Data were collected via semi-structured interviews with 217 Black, White, and Multiracial children (Mage  = 9.92) in public schools in the Pacific Northwest during 2013-2014 academic year. Our analysis identified four race narratives, which varied systematically by child age and race. Associations were also found between narrative types and children's ratings of racial identity importance. Although colorblindness infuses many of the racial narratives, there was evidence that children also question and disrupt this master narrative with stories of resistance that counter colorblind norms.

Vicarious Racism and Vigilance During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Mental Health Implications Among Asian and Black Americans.

OBJECTIVES: Experiences of vicarious racism-hearing about racism directed toward one's racial group or racist acts committed against other racial group members-and vigilance about racial discrimination have been salient during the COVID-19 pandemic. This study examined vicarious racism and vigilance in relation to symptoms of depression and anxiety among Asian and Black Americans. METHODS: We used data from a cross-sectional study of 604 Asian American and 844 Black American adults aged ≥18 in the United States recruited from 5 US cities from May 21 through July 15, 2020. Multivariable linear regression models examined levels of depression and anxiety by self-reported vicarious racism and vigilance. RESULTS: Controlling for sociodemographic characteristics, among both Asian and Black Americans, greater self-reported vicarious racism was associated with more symptoms of depression (Asian: ß = 1.92 [95% CI, 0.97-2.87]; Black: ß = 1.72 [95% CI, 0.95-2.49]) and anxiety (Asian: ß = 2.40 [95% CI, 1.48-3.32]; Black: ß = 1.98 [95% CI, 1.17-2.78]). Vigilance was also positively related to symptoms of depression (Asian: ß = 1.54 [95% CI, 0.58-2.50]; Black: ß = 0.90 [95% CI, 0.12-1.67]) and anxiety (Asian: ß = 1.98 [95% CI, 1.05-2.91]; Black: ß = 1.64 [95% CI, 0.82-2.45]). CONCLUSIONS: Mental health problems are a pressing concern during the COVID-19 pandemic. Results from our study suggest that heightened racist sentiment, harassment, and violence against Asian and Black Americans contribute to increased risk of depression and anxiety via vicarious racism and vigilance. Public health efforts during this period should address endemic racism as well as COVID-19.

"[I]t's hard because it's the cops that are killing us for stupid stuff": Racial identity in the sociopolitical context of Black Lives Matter.

Black Lives Matter (BLM) has profoundly shifted public and political discourse about race in the United States and thus the broader sociopolitical landscape in which children learn about race and their own racial identities. A sample of Black, White, and Multiracial children (N = 100; Mage = 10.18 years old) were interviewed about their racial identities in 2014 and again in 2016. During these 2 years, BLM surged with the National March on Washington, widespread news coverage of multiple cases of police brutality, and a highly racialized presidential election. The current analysis examines longitudinal change in children's racial identity narratives across these two time points with attention to the role of BLM. Qualitative interview analyses show that (a) the importance of racial identity increased among Black and Multiracial (but not White) children, and (b) the content of children's race narratives shifted to include BLM-related themes and more discussions of race as interpersonal and structural (not just individual). We discuss age-related changes and how to conceptualize maturation during significant sociopolitical moments, like the current one, in relation to racial identity development. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Quantifying gender norm resistance.

INTRODUCTION: Qualitative and mixed-methods researchers have described the experience of gender norm resistance in adolescence and identified potential types of resistance including indirect resistance (motivated by a preference for gender-atypicality) and direct resistance (motivated by dislike of gender norms and a desire to change them). Building on this work, we developed the Gender Norm Resistance measure to operationalize indirect and direct gender norm resistance. We explored how gender norm resistance aligns with and differs from other gender self-concepts (e.g., felt pressure to conform to gender norms) and peer relations (e.g., contact with peers) and tested for gender differences. METHODS: Participants included 484 early adolescents (girls = 234; Mage = 11.44 years, SD = 0.56). Analyses included factor analyses (EFA, CFA) and bivariate correlations to gather validity evidence, and ANOVAs to determine mean level differences. RESULTS: Evidence that validated using the proposed measure as intended was found including confirmation of the two types of gender norm resistance (indirect and direct). Mean differences were found across participant gender as well as across types of gender norm resistance. CONCLUSIONS: The findings highlight the strengths and weaknesses of the Gender Norm Resistance measure, the different ways adolescents experience indirect and direct gender norm resistance, and the limited role of felt pressure in gender norm resistance.

"I'm Kind of a Feminist": Using Master Narratives to Analyze Gender Identity in Middle Childhood.

A robust literature documents the significance of gender in children's development, but gaps remain in understanding how developing gender identities link to gender inequalities. This article uses master narratives to analyze the ways that children's gender narratives reinforce or disrupt gender inequality. Semistructured interviews were conducted with 233 Black, White, mixed- and other-race minority children (7-12 years old; Mage  = 9.92; 61% girls) in racially diverse schools in the Pacific Northwest. Four narrative types were identified: two "master narratives" that reinforced gender inequality and two "alternative narratives" that disrupted it. Analyses revealed that 5th/6th-graders (vs. 2nd-4th graders) and girls (vs. boys) were more likely to tell alternative narratives. The contributions of master narratives for understanding gender identity, development, and inequality are discussed.

"We're Supposed to Look Like Girls, But Act Like Boys": Adolescent Girls' Adherence to Masculinity Norms.

In the ecological systems perspective, gender ideologies are part of the macrosystem that shapes human development. A growing literature indicates that youth accommodate and resist such ideologies, with adherence to masculinity norms being linked with negative adjustment. Most masculinity research focuses on boys' adherence to masculinity, but girls are also pressured to uphold masculinity norms. Using mixed modeling, we examined girls' adherence to masculinity and psychological (self-esteem, depressive symptoms) and social (peer support and conflict) well-being in the United States (N = 407; Mage  = 12.28) and China (N = 356; Mage  = 12.41). In both countries, adherence to masculinity was negatively associated with psychosocial well-being. Chinese girls reported greater masculinity adherence, but associations with psychosocial well-being were not moderated by nationality.

A Lifespan Model of Ethnic-Racial Identity.

The current paper presents a lifespan model of ethnic-racial identity (ERI) from infancy into adulthood. We conceptualize that ethnic-racial priming during infancy prompts nascent awareness of ethnicity/race that becomes differentiated across childhood and through adulthood. We propose that the components of ERI that have been tested to date fall within five dimensions across the lifespan: ethnic-racial awareness, affiliation, attitudes, behaviors, and knowledge. Further, ERI evolves in a bidirectional process informed by an interplay of influencers (i.e., contextual, individual, and developmental factors, as well as meaning-making and identity-relevant experiences). It is our goal that the lifespan model of ERI will provide important future direction to theory, research, and interventions.

APPLYING THE LIFESPAN MODEL OF ETHNIC-RACIAL IDENTITY: EXPLORING AFFECT, BEHAVIOR, AND COGNITION TO PROMOTE WELL-BEING.

This paper presents an application of the Lifespan Model of Ethnic-Racial Identity (ERI) Development (see Williams, et al., in press). Using a tripartite approach, we present the affective, behavioral, and cognitive aspects of ERI in a framework that can be adapted for group and individual psychosocial interventions across the lifespan. These A-B-C anchors are presented in developmental contexts as well as the larger social contexts of systemic oppression and current and historical sociopolitical climates. It is ultimately the aspiration of this identity work that individuals will engage in ERI meaning-making, drawing from the implicit and explicit aspects of their A-B-Cs, to support a healthy and positive sense of themselves and others as members of ethnic-racial social groups.

PERSISTENT CONCERNS: QUESTIONS FOR RESEARCH ON ETHNIC-RACIAL IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT.

Research on ethnic-racial identity (ERI) and its development has increased exponentially over the past decade. In this paper we discuss five questions that the Lifespan ERI Study Group grappled with in our effort propose a lifespan model of ERI: (1) When does ERI development begin and end? (2) How do we account for age-dependent and contextually-initiated factors in ERI? (3) Should there be a reference point for healthy ERI, and if so, what is it? (4) How do the multiplicities of identity (intersectionality, multiracialism, whiteness) figure into our conceptualization of ERI? (5) How do we understand the role of ERI in pursuit of equity, diversity, and social justice? We note that these are persistent questions in ERI research, and thus our goal is to present our collective reckoning with these issues as well as our ponderings about why they persist. We conclude with recommendations forthe kinds of research questions, designs, and methods that developmental science, in particular, needs to pursue.

Commentary on economic inequality: "what" and "who" constitutes research on social inequality in developmental science?

A focal goal of development science in recent years has been to document and understand the psychological processes that underlie inequality toward the goal of promoting equity and justice (e.g., Killen, Rutland, & Yip, 2016). This timely special section on economic inequality broadens the empirical conversation, which has centered mostly on race and gender, to include how children and adolescents perceive, experience, and reason about economic inequality in their social worlds. From the perspective of the broader literature on children's developing understanding of social identities and inequalities, I reflect on 3 observations raised collectively in these special section articles: (a) how economic inequality is defined and for whom; (b) the role of intersectionality; and (c) the dearth of longitudinal data. I suggest that developmental scholarship on inequality has focused on particular aspects of inequality (poverty and oppression) for particular demographic groups (ethnic-racial minority populations) and relied on cross-sectional (rather than longitudinal) data to draw conclusions about development. These observations are not necessarily unique to the articles in this special section but warrant consideration across the scholarship on inequality in developmental science. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).