CaMKIIα mediates spermidine-induced memory enhancement in rats: A potential involvement of PKA/CREB pathway.

Memory consolidation is associated with the regulation of protein kinases, which impact synaptic functions and promote synaptogenesis. The administration of spermidine (SPD) has been shown to modulate major protein kinases associated with memory improvement, including the Ca2+-dependent protein kinase (PKC) and cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA), key players in the cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) activation. Nevertheless, the initial mechanism underlying SPD-mediated memory consolidation remains unknown, as we hypothesize a potential involvement of the memory consolidation precursor, Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II-α (CaMKIIα), in this process. Based on this, our study aimed to investigate potential interactions among PKC, PKA, and CREB activation, mediated by CaMKIIα activation, in order to elucidate the SPD memory consolidation pathway. Our findings suggest that the post-training administration of the CaMKII inhibitor, KN-62 (0.25 nmol, intrahippocampal), prevented the memory enhancement induced by SPD (0.2 nmol, intrahippocampal) in the inhibitory avoidance task. Through western immunoblotting, we observed that phosphorylation of CaMKIIα in the hippocampus was facilitated 15 min after intrahippocampal SPD administration, resulting in the activation of PKA and CREB, 180 min after infusion, suggesting a possible sequential mechanism, since SPD with KN-62 infusion leads to a downregulation in CaMKIIα/PKA/CREB pathway. However, KN-62 does not alter the memory-facilitating effect of SPD on PKC, possibly demonstrating a parallel cascade in memory acquisition via PKA, without modulating CAMKIIα. These results suggest that memory enhancement induced by SPD administration involves crosstalk between CaMKIIα and PKA/CREB, with no PKC interaction.

Spermidine-induced improvement of memory consolidation involves PI3K/Akt signaling pathway.

Spermidine (SPD) is an endogenous polyamine that plays a facilitatory role in memory acquisition and consolidation. Memory consolidation occurs immediately after learning and again around 3-6 hours later. Current evidence indicates that the polyamine binding site at the NMDA receptor (NMDAr) mediates the effects of SPD on memory. While NMDAr activation increases brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) release, no study has investigated whether BDNF-activated signaling pathways, such as the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt pathway play a role in SPD-induced improvement of memory consolidation. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to evaluate whether the TrkB receptor and the PI3K/Akt pathway are involved in the facilitatory effect of SPD on memory consolidation. Male Wistar rats were trained in the contextual conditioned fear task. SPD, ANA-12 (TrkB antagonist), and LY294002 (PI3K inhibitor) were administered immediately after training. The animals were tested 24 h after training. We found that SPD improved fear memory consolidation and that both ANA-12 and LY294002 prevented the facilitatory effect of SPD on memory. These results suggest that SPD-induced improvement of memory consolidation involves the activation of the TrkB receptor and PI3K/Akt pathway.

Mansoa alliacea extract presents antinociceptive effect in a chronic inflammatory pain model in mice through opioid mechanisms.

In some chronic disorders, as in arthritis, the inflammatory pain persists beyond the inflammation control becoming pathological. Its treatment shows limited efficacy and adverse effects which compromises patients' quality of life. Mansoa alliacea, known as 'cipo alho', is popularly used as analgesic and others species of this genus show anti-inflammatory actions. We investigated the anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive potential of M. alliacea extract in an inflammatory pain model which presents inflammatory characteristics similar to those caused by arthritis, through of the intraplantar injection of complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA) in mice. The extract chromatographic analysis revealed the presence of ρ-coumaric, ferulic and chlorogenic acids, luteolin, and apigenin. The treatment with M. alliacea prevented and reversed the CFA-induced mechanical allodynia with maximum inhibition (Imax) of 100% and 90 ±â€¯10%, respectively. The co-administration of M. alliacea extract plus morphine enhanced the anti-allodynic effect with Imax of 100%. The M. alliacea extract also reverted the CFA-induced thermal hyperalgesia with Imax of 3.6 times greater compared to the vehicle and reduced the thermal threshold under physiological conditions. However, M. alliacea extract did not reduce the CFA-induced edema and myeloperoxidase activity. Additionally, non-selective and δ-selective opioid receptor antagonists, but not κ-opioid, prevented extract anti-allodynic effect with Imax of 98 ±â€¯2% and 93 ±â€¯2%, respectively. Moreover, M. alliacea extract did not induce adverse effects commonly caused by opioids and other analgesic drugs, at least in the tested pharmacological doses after the acute treatment. M. alliacea extract presents antinociceptive activity in an inflammatory pain model, which presents inflammatory characteristics similar to those arthritis-induced, without causing adverse effects in tested pharmacological doses. These effects seem to be mediated mainly via δ-opioid receptors.

Physical exercise prevents memory impairment in an animal model of hypertension through modulation of CD39 and CD73 activities and A2A receptor expression.

: Background: Central nervous system function has been emerging as an approach to understand hypertension-mediated memory dysfunction, and chronic exercise is able to modulate the purinergic system. METHOD: Herein, we investigated the effect of chronic swimming training on the purinergic system in cortex and hippocampus of L-NAME-induced hypertensive rats. Male Wistar rats were divided into four groups: Control, Exercise, L-NAME and Exercise L-NAME. Inhibitory avoidance test was used to assess memory status. NTPDase, CD73 and adenosine deaminase activities and expression, and P2 receptors expression were analyzed. Data were analyzed using two-way ANOVA and Kruskal-Wallis tests, considering P less than 0.05. RESULTS: Physical exercise reduced the blood pressure and prevented memory impairment induced by L-NAME model of hypertension. L-NAME treatment promoted an increase in NTPDase1, NTPDase3 and CD73 expression and activity in the cortex. A2A expression is increased in hippocampus and cortex in the hypertension group and exercise prevented this overexpression. CONCLUSION: These changes suggest that hypertension increases adenosine generation, which acts through A2A receptors, and exercise prevents these effects. These data may indicate a possible mechanism by which exercise may prevent memory impairment induced by L-NAME.

Neuroprotective effects of berberine on recognition memory impairment, oxidative stress, and damage to the purinergic system in rats submitted to intracerebroventricular injection of streptozotocin.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive and irreversible neurodegenerative disease. The present study investigated the effects of 50 and 100 mg/kg berberine (BRB) on recognition memory, oxidative stress, and purinergic neurotransmission, in a model of sporadic dementia of the Alzheimer's type induced by intracerebroventricular (ICV) injection of streptozotocin (STZ) in rats. Rats were submitted to ICV-STZ 3 mg/kg or saline, and 3 days later, were started on a treatment of BRB or saline for 21 days. The results demonstrated that BRB was effective in protecting against memory impairment, increased reactive oxygen species, and the subsequent increase in protein and lipid oxidation in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus, as well as δ-aminolevulinate dehydratase inhibition in the cerebral cortex. Moreover, the decrease in total thiols, and the reduced glutathione and glutathione S-transferase activity in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus of ICV-STZ rats, was prevented by BRB treatment. Besides an antioxidant effect, BRB treatment was capable of preventing decreases in ecto-nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase (NTPDase), 5'-nucleotidase (EC-5'-Nt), and adenosine deaminase (ADA) activities in synaptosomes of the cerebral cortex and hippocampus. Thus, our data suggest that BRB exerts a neuroprotective effect on recognition memory, as well as on oxidative stress and oxidative stress-related damage, such as dysfunction of the purinergic system. This suggests that BRB may act as a promising multipotent agent for the treatment of AD.

A Nonrewarding NMDA Receptor Antagonist Impairs the Acquisition, Consolidation, and Expression of Morphine Conditioned Place Preference in Mice.

N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor antagonists block morphine-induced conditioned place preference (CPP). Although polyamines are endogenous modulators of the NMDA receptor, it is not known whether polyaminergic agents induce CPP or modulate morphine-induced CPP. Here, we examined whether polyamine ligands modify morphine CPP acquisition, consolidation, and expression. Adult male albino Swiss mice received saline (0.9 % NaCl, intraperitoneally (i.p.)) or morphine (5 mg/kg, i.p.) and were respectively confined to a black or a white compartment for 30 min for four consecutive days for CPP induction. The effect of arcaine (3 mg/kg, i.p.) or spermidine (30 mg/kg, i.p.), respectively, an antagonist and an agonist of the polyamine-binding site at the NMDA receptor, on the acquisition, consolidation, and expression of morphine CPP was studied. In those experiments designed to investigate whether spermidine prevented or reversed the effect of arcaine, spermidine (30 mg/kg, i.p.) was administered 15 min before or 15 min after arcaine, respectively. Arcaine and spermidine did not induce CPP or aversion per se. Arcaine (3 mg/kg, i.p.) impaired the acquisition, consolidation, and expression of morphine CPP. Spermidine prevented the impairing effect of arcaine on the acquisition of morphine CPP but not the impairing effect of arcaine on consolidation or expression of morphine CPP. These results suggest that arcaine may impair morphine CPP acquisition by modulating the polyamine-binding site at the NMDA receptor. However, the arcaine-induced impairment of consolidation and expression of morphine CPP seems to involve other mechanisms.

Berberine protects against memory impairment and anxiogenic-like behavior in rats submitted to sporadic Alzheimer's-like dementia: Involvement of acetylcholinesterase and cell death.

The present study aimed to investigate the effects of berberine (BRB) on spatial and learning memory, anxiety, acetylcholinesterase activity and cell death in an experimental model of intracerebroventricular streptozotocin (ICV-STZ) induced sporadic Alzheimer's-like dementia. Sixty male Wistar rats were randomly divided into six groups: control (CTR), BRB 50mg/kg (BRB 50), BRB 100mg/kg (BRB 100), streptozotocin (STZ), streptozotocin plus BRB 50mg/kg (STZ+BRB 50), and streptozotocin plus BRB 100mg/kg (STZ+BRB 100). Rats were injected with ICV-STZ (3mg/kg) or saline, and daily oral BRB treatment began on day 4 for a period of 21days. Behavioral tests were carried out on day 17, and rats were euthanized on day 24. Cell death analysis and determination of acetylcholinesterase activity was performed on the cerebral cortex and hippocampus of the brain. Administration of BRB prevented the memory loss, anxiogenic behavior, increased acetylcholinesterase activity and cell death induced by ICV-STZ. This may be explained, in part, by a protective effect of BRB on ameliorating the progression of neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease, and the results of this study provide a better understanding of the effect of BRB on the brain. Thus, BRB may act as a potential neuroprotective agent.

Antinociceptive and antidepressant-like effects of the crude extract of Vitex megapotamica in rats.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Vitex megapotamica (Spreng) Moldenke has been used in South American folk medicine to treat inflammatory diseases. However, the effects of V. megapotamica on animal models of nociception and depression have not been evaluated. AIM OF THE STUDY: This study investigated whether the crude leaf extract of V. megapotamica exhibits antinociceptive and antidepressant-like effects in a Freund's adjuvant-induced chronic inflammation and depression model. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Chronic inflammation was induced in rats by the intraplantar administration of complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA; 100µl). The effect of oral crude extract of V. megapotamica (VmE; 3-30mg/kg, p.o.) on nociception (thermal hyperalgesia, mechanical allodynia and arthritis score), inflammation (edema, myeloperoxidase activity), immobility (forced swimming test), locomotor activity (open field), gastrointestinal transit, hyperalgesia and naloxone-precipitated morphine withdrawal syndrome was evaluated. Naloxone (0.4mg/kg, i.p.) was used to investigate the involvement of opioid system in the currently described effects of VmE. RESULTS: Crude extract caused antinociceptive/antidepressant-like effects in the CFA-induced chronic inflammation model, which was prevented by naloxone. The VmE extract (10mg/kg, p.o.) did not alter the locomotor activity, gastrointestinal function and inflammatory parameters and did not cause hyperalgesia. CONCLUSION: V. megapotamica induces opioid-dependent antinociception and antidepressant-like effect, without anti-inflammatory activity. The results support the use of VmE as analgesic and antidepressant.

Modulation of learning and memory by natural polyamines.

Spermine and spermidine are natural polyamines that are produced mainly via decarboxylation of l-ornithine and the sequential transfer of aminopropyl groups from S-adenosylmethionine to putrescine by spermidine synthase and spermine synthase. Spermine and spermidine interact with intracellular and extracellular acidic residues of different nature, including nucleic acids, phospholipids, acidic proteins, carboxyl- and sulfate-containing polysaccharides. Therefore, multiple actions have been suggested for these polycations, including modulation of the activity of ionic channels, protein synthesis, protein kinases, and cell proliferation/death, within others. In this review we summarize these neurochemical/neurophysiological/morphological findings, particularly those that have been implicated in the improving and deleterious effects of spermine and spermidine on learning and memory of naïve animals in shock-motivated and nonshock-motivated tasks, from a historical perspective. The interaction with the opioid system, the facilitation and disruption of morphine-induced reward and the effect of polyamines and putative polyamine antagonists on animal models of cognitive diseases, such as Alzheimer's, Huntington, acute neuroinflammation and brain trauma are also reviewed and discussed. The increased production of polyamines in Alzheimer's disease and the biphasic nature of the effects of polyamines on memory and on the NMDA receptor are also considered. In light of the current literature on polyamines, which include the description of an inborn error of the metabolism characterized by mild-to moderate mental retardation and polyamine metabolism alterations in suicide completers, we can anticipate that polyamine targets may be important for the development of novel strategies and approaches for understanding the etiopathogenesis of important central disorders and their pharmacological treatment.

Spermidine-induced improvement of reconsolidation of memory involves calcium-dependent protein kinase in rats.

In this study, we determined whether the calcium-dependent protein kinase (PKC) signaling pathway is involved in the improvement of fear memory reconsolidation induced by the intrahippocampal administration of spermidine in rats. Male Wistar rats were trained in a fear conditioning apparatus using a 0.4-mA footshock as an unconditioned stimulus. Twenty-four hours after training, animals were re-exposed to the apparatus in the absence of shock (reactivation session). Immediately after the reactivation session, spermidine (2-200 pmol/site), the PKC inhibitor 3-[1-(dimethylaminopropyl)indol-3-yl]-4-(indol-3-yl) maleimide hydrochloride (GF 109203X, 0.3-30 pg/site), the antagonist of the polyamine-binding site at the NMDA receptor, arcaine (0.2-200 pmol/site), or the PKC activator phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA, 0.02-2 nmol/site) was injected. While the post-reactivation administration of spermidine (20 and 200 pmol/site) and PMA (2 nmol/site) improved memory reconsolidation, GF 109203X (1, 10, and 30 pg/site) and arcaine (200 pmol/site) impaired it. GF 109203X (0.3 pg/site) impaired memory reconsolidation in the presence of spermidine (200 pmol/site). PMA (0.2 nmol/site) prevented the arcaine (200 pmol/site)-induced impairment of memory reconsolidation. Anisomycin (2 µg/site) also impaired memory reconsolidation in the presence of spermidine (200 pmol/site). Drugs had no effect when they were administered in the absence of reactivation. These results suggest that the spermidine-induced enhancement of memory reconsolidation involves PKC activation.

Spermine reverses lipopolysaccharide-induced memory deficit in mice.

BACKGROUND: Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induces neuroinflammation and memory deficit. Since polyamines improve memory in various cognitive tasks, we hypothesized that spermine administration reverses LPS-induced memory deficits in an object recognition task in mice. The involvement of the polyamine binding site at the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor and cytokine production in the promnesic effect of spermine were investigated. METHODS: Adult male mice were injected with LPS (250 µg/kg, intraperitoneally) and spermine (0.3 to 1 mg/kg, intraperitoneally) or ifenprodil (0.3 to 10 mg/kg, intraperitoneally), or both, and their memory function was evaluated using a novel object recognition task. In addition, cortical and hippocampal cytokines levels were measured by ELISA four hours after LPS injection. RESULTS: Spermine increased but ifenprodil decreased the recognition index in the novel object recognition task. Spermine, at doses that did not alter memory (0.3 mg/kg, intraperitoneally), reversed the cognitive impairment induced by LPS. Ifenprodil (0.3 mg/kg, intraperitoneally) reversed the protective effect of spermine against LPS-induced memory deficits. However, spermine failed to reverse the LPS-induced increase of cortical and hippocampal cytokine levels. CONCLUSIONS: Spermine protects against LPS-induced memory deficits in mice by a mechanism that involves GluN2B receptors.

Effect of morphine on the persistence of long-term memory in rats.

RATIONALE: Current evidence suggests that pharmacological manipulation around 12 h after training alters the persistence of long-term memory. However, no study has addressed whether opioids modulate the persistence of fear. The current study examined whether morphine alters the persistence of the memory of contextual fear conditioning. METHODS: Male adult Wistar rats were injected with saline (NaCl 0.9 %, intraperitoneally (i.p.)) or morphine (3 and/or 10 mg/kg, i.p.) 6, 9, 12, or 24 h post-training and tested 2 or 7 days after training, when freezing responses were assessed. The involvement of state dependence and opioid receptors in the effect of morphine was investigated by respectively injecting naloxone (1 mg/kg, i.p.) 30 min before morphine, and morphine (10 mg/kg, i.p.) 30 min before testing. RESULTS: Morphine (10 mg/kg, i.p., 12 h post-training) did not alter freezing to context in animals tested 2 days after training but impaired freezing to context when testing was carried out 7 or 14 days after training. Morphine (10 mg/kg, i.p.) administration 6, 9, or 24 h post-training did not alter freezing measured 2 or 7 days after training. Pre-test morphine improved recall but did not alter the deleterious effect of 12 h post-training morphine. The deleterious effect of morphine was prevented by naloxone, indicating that opioid receptors are involved in this effect. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings indicate an inhibitory role for opioid receptors in memory persistence. This is relevant from both the experimental and clinical point of views, since it may have implications for the prevention of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

Inhibition of the polyamine system counteracts ß-amyloid peptide-induced memory impairment in mice: involvement of extrasynaptic NMDA receptors.

In Alzheimer's disease (AD), the ß-amyloid peptide (Aß) has been causally linked to synaptic dysfunction and cognitive impairment. Several studies have shown that N-Methyl-D-Aspartate receptors (NMDAR) activation is involved in the detrimental actions of Aß. Polyamines, like spermidine and spermine, are positive modulators of NMDAR function and it has been shown that their levels are regulated by Aß. In this study we show here that interruption of NMDAR modulation by polyamines through blockade of its binding site at NMDAR by arcaine (0.02 nmol/site), or inhibition of polyamine synthesis by DFMO (2.7 nmol/site), reverses Aß25-35-induced memory impairment in mice in a novel object recognition task. Incubation of hippocampal cell cultures with Aß25-35 (10 µM) significantly increased the nuclear accumulation of Jacob, which is a hallmark of NMDAR activation. The Aß-induced nuclear translocation of Jacob was blocked upon application of traxoprodil (4 nM), arcaine (4 µM) or DFMO (5 µM), suggesting that activation of the polyamine binding site at NMDAR located probably at extrasynaptic sites might underlie the cognitive deficits of Aß25-35-treated mice. Extrasynaptic NMDAR activation in primary neurons results in a stripping of synaptic contacts and simplification of neuronal cytoarchitecture. Aß25-35 application in hippocampal primary cell cultures reduced dendritic spine density and induced alterations on spine morphology. Application of traxoprodil (4 nM), arcaine (4 µM) or DFMO (5 µM) reversed these effects of Aß25-35. Taken together these data provide evidence that polyamine modulation of extrasynaptic NMDAR signaling might be involved in Aß pathology.

Polyaminergic agents modulate the reconsolidation of conditioned fear.

When consolidated memories are reactivated, they become labile and, to persist, must undergo a new stabilization process called reconsolidation. During reactivation, memory is susceptible to pharmacological interventions that may improve or impair it. Spermidine (SPD) is an endogenous polyamine that physiologically modulates the N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor in mammals by binding on the polyamine-binding site at the NMDA receptor. While polyamine agonists and antagonists of the polyamine binding site on the NMDA receptor respectively improve and impair early consolidation, it has not been defined whether these agents alter memory reconsolidation. Male Wistar rats were trained in a fear conditioning apparatus using a 0.4 mA footshock as unconditioned stimulus. Twenty four hours after training, animals were re-exposed to the apparatus in the absence of shock (reactivation session). Immediately after the reactivation session, SPD (1-30 mg/kg, i.p.) or the antagonist of the polyamine-binding site at the NMDA receptor, arcaine (0.1-10 mg/kg, i.p.), were injected, and the animals were tested in the same apparatus 24 h later. Freezing scores at testing were considered a measure of memory. While SPD (3 and 10mg/kg) improved, arcaine (1 and 10 mg/kg) impaired memory reconsolidation. These drugs had no effect on memory if they were administered in the absence of reactivation, or 6h after reactivation session. Arcaine (0.1 mg/kg, i.p.) prevented SPD (3 mg/kg)-induced improvement of memory reconsolidation. Accordingly, SPD (1 mg/kg) prevented arcaine (10 mg/kg)-induced impairment of memory reconsolidation. The amnesic effect of arcaine was not reversed by arcaine administration prior to test, ruling out state dependence in this effect. These results suggest that systemic administration of polyamine binding site ligands modulate memory reconsolidation.

Free and nanoencapsulated curcumin prevents cigarette smoke-induced cognitive impairment and redox imbalance.

Cigarette smoke-exposure promotes neurobiological changes associated with neurocognitive abnormalities. Curcumin, a natural polyphenol, have shown to be able to prevent cigarette smoke-induced cognitive impairment. Here, we investigated possible mechanisms involved in curcumin protection against cigarette smoke-induced cognitive impairment and, due to its poor bioavailability, we investigated the potential of using curcumin-loaded lipid-core nanocapsules (C-LNC) suspension. Rats were treated with curcumin and cigarette smoke, once a day, 5 days each week, for 30 days. Animals were divided into ten groups: I, control (vehicle/corn oil); II, curcumin 12.5mg/kg; III, curcumin 25mg/kg; IV, curcumin 50mg/kg; V, C-LNC 4 mg/kg; VI, tobacco exposed; VII, curcumin 12.5mg/kg along with tobacco exposure; VIII, curcumin 25mg/kg along with tobacco exposure; IX, curcumin 50mg/kg along with tobacco exposure; X, C-LNC 4 mg/kg along with tobacco exposure. Cigarette smoke-exposure impaired object recognition memory (P<0.001), indicated by the low recognition index, increased biomarkers of oxidative/nitrosative stress such as TBARS (P<0.05) and NOx (P<0.01), decreased antioxidant defenses such as NPSH content (P<0.01) and SOD activity (P<0.01) and inhibited the activities of enzymes involved in ion homeostasis such as Na(+),K(+)-ATPase and Ca(2+)-ATPase. Both curcumin formulations (free and nanoencapsulated) prevented the memory impairment, the redox imbalance and the alterations observed in the ATPases activities. Maintenance of ion homeostasis and redox balance is involved in the protective mechanism of curcumin against tobacco-induced cognitive impairment. Our results suggest that curcumin is a potential therapeutic agent for neurocognition and that C-LNC may be an alternative to its poor bioavailability.

Effects of caffeic acid on behavioral parameters and on the activity of acetylcholinesterase in different tissues from adult rats.

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is distributed throughout the body in both neuronal and non-neuronal tissues and plays an important role in the regulation of physiological events. Caffeic acid is a phenolic compound that has anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties. The aim of this study was to investigate in vitro and in vivo whether caffeic acid alters the AChE activity and behavioral parameters in rats. In the in vitro study, the concentrations of 0, 0.1, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2mM of caffeic acid were used. For the in vivo study, five groups were evaluated: group I (control); group II (canola oil), group III (10mg/kg of caffeic acid); group IV (50mg/kg of caffeic acid) and group V (100mg/kg of caffeic acid). Caffeic acid was diluted in canola oil and administered for 30 days. In vitro, the caffeic acid increased the AChE activity in the cerebral cortex, cerebellum, hypothalamus, whole blood, and lymphocytes at different concentrations. In muscle, this compound caused an inhibition in the AChE activity at concentrations of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2mM when compared to the control (P<0.05). In vivo, 50 and 100mg/kg of caffeic acid decreased the AChE activity in the cerebral cortex and striatum and increased the activity of this enzyme in the cerebellum, hippocampus, hypothalamus, pons, lymphocytes, and muscles when compared to the control group (P<0.05). The amount of 100mg/kg of caffeic acid improved the step-down latencies in the inhibitory avoidance. Our results demonstrated that caffeic acid improved memory and interfered with the cholinergic signaling. As a natural and promising compound caffeic acid should be considered potentially therapeutic in disorders that involve the cholinergic system.

Curcumin protects against cigarette smoke-induced cognitive impairment and increased acetylcholinesterase activity in rats.

Cigarette smoke, a widely spread habit, is associated with a decline in cognitive function and studies have demonstrated that curcumin (Cur), an Indian spice, possesses a strong neuroprotective potential. Considering the relevance of investigating dietary compounds this study aimed to investigate the effect of Cur on memory and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity in brain structures and blood of cigarette smoke-exposed rats. Male Wistar rats were treated with curcumin and cigarette smoke, once a day, 5 days each week, for 30 days. The experimental procedures were divided in two sets of experiments. In the first, the animals were divided into 4 groups: Vehicle (corn oil), Cur 12.5 mg/kg, Cur 25 mg/kg and Cur 50 mg/kg. In the second, the animals were divided into 5 groups: Vehicle (corn oil), Smoke, Smoke plus Cur 12.5 mg/kg, Smoke plus Cur 25 mg/kg and Smoke plus Cur 50 mg/kg. Treatment with Cur significantly prevented the decreased latency and cholinergic alterations in cigarette smoke-exposed rats. These AChE alterations could suggest a role in the memory impairment promoted by cigarette smoke-exposure and point toward the potential of Cur to modulate cholinergic neurotransmission and, consequently, improve cognition deficits induced by smoke. This study suggests that the dietary compound Cur may be involved in cholinergic system modulation and as a consequence exert an effect on learning and memory.

Opioid mechanisms are involved in the disruption of arcaine-induced amnesia by context pre-exposure.

Previous exposure to the training context disrupts glutamatergic N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAr) antagonist-induced amnesia, indicating that novelty is necessary for such an amnestic effect. While there are reports that novelty-related release of opioids cause amnesia, no study has addressed whether the amnestic effect of NMDAr antagonists involve opioid mechanisms. In this study we investigated whether pharmacological manipulation of the opioid system immediately after context pre-exposure alters the amnestic effect of arcaine, a NMDAr antagonist. Adult male Wistar rats were habituated (pre-exposed) to a fear conditioning training apparatus or to a different context (open field). Immediately after pre-exposure, animals were injected with saline or naloxone (0.5 mg/kg, i.p.) or anti-beta-endorphin antibody (1:500, i.c.v.). Forty eight hours after pre-exposure session, all animals were subjected to fear conditioning acquisition protocol and saline or arcaine (30 mg/kg, i.p.) was administered immediately after training. Testing was carried out 24 h later, and freezing responses due to re-exposure to the training apparatus were recorded. Pre-exposure to the training apparatus prevented the impairment of memory induced by post-training arcaine. Administration of naloxone or anti-beta-endorphin antibody, immediately after pre-exposure to the training apparatus, reinstated the amnesic effect of post-training arcaine. The results suggest that endogenous opioid mechanisms are involved in the pre-exposure-induced loss of the amnestic effect of arcaine.

A more accurate profile of Achyrocline satureioides hypocholesterolemic activity.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of the aqueous extract (AE) of Achyrocline satureioides on serum lipid profile, liver oxidative profile and Na(+),K(+)-ATPase activity of rats submitted to a hyperlipidic diet. The animals were divided into four groups: control (C), AE 10% (A(10)), hyperlipidic (H) and hyperlipidic/AE 10% (HA(10)). In serum, we measured the levels of total cholesterol (TC), high-density lipoprotein, very-low-density lipoprotein, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and triglyceride (TG). In liver homogenates, we measured the thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, the carbonyl proteins, the non-protein thiols (NPSHs) and the activity of superoxide dismutase, catalase (CAT) and Na(+),K(+)-ATPase. We observed a significant increase in the TC and LDL levels in the H group. A. satureioides prevented these effects, decreased the TG levels in the HA(10) group and increased the NPSH levels in the A(10) and HA(10) groups. The H group showed an increase in the carbonyl protein level and a decrease in CAT and Na(+),K(+)-ATPase activities. With the use of this model, results show that increased levels of lipids are related to a redox imbalance in the liver, which is also related to the inhibition of Na(+),K(+)-ATPase activity, and that chronic administration of the AE of A. satureioides is capable of changing this profile.

Traxoprodil decreases pentylenetetrazol-induced seizures.

Polyamines, including spermidine, facilitate seizures by positively modulating N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors (NMDAr). Although NMDAr antagonists decrease seizures, it remains to be determined whether traxoprodil, a selective antagonist at the NR2B subunit of the NMDAr, decreases seizures and whether spermidine facilitates pentylenetetrazol (PTZ)-induced seizures. Adult male Wistar rats were injected in the lateral ventricle with 0.9% NaCl (1µl, i.c.v.), spermidine (0.02, 0.2 or 2nmol/site, i.c.v.) or traxoprodil (0.2, 2 or 20nmol, i.c.v.) and with PTZ (35 or 70mg/kg, i.p.). The effect of orally administered traxoprodil (60mg/kg, p.o.) on seizures was also investigated. Latencies to clonic and generalized seizures, as well the total time spent in seizures were recorded by behavioral and electrographic methods (EEG). Spermidine (2nmol/site; i.c.v.) facilitated the seizures induced by a sub-threshold dose of PTZ (35mg/kg; i.p.), but did not alter seizure activity induced by a convulsant dose of PTZ (70mg/kg; i.p.). Traxoprodil (20nmol i.c.v.) increased the latency to generalized tonic-clonic seizures induced by PTZ (70mg/kg; i.p.). Traxoprodil (60mg/kg, p.o.) increased the latency to clonic and generalized seizures, and decreased the total time spent in seizures. These results support the role for the NR2B subunit in PTZ-induced seizures.