Understanding the intergenerational impact of migration: An adult mortality advantage for the children of forced migrants?

BACKGROUND: Children of immigrants often have excess mortality rates, in contrast to the low mortality typically exhibited by their parents' generation. However, prior research has studied children of immigrants who were selected into migration, thereby rendering it difficult to isolate the intergenerational impact of migration on adult mortality. METHODS: We use semi-parametric survival analysis to carry out a total population cohort study estimating all-cause and cause-specific mortality among all adult men and women from age 17 among all men and women born in 1953-1972 and resident in Finland in 1970-2020. We compare children of forced migrants from ceded Karelia-an area of Finland that was ceded to Russia during the Second World War-with the children of parents born in present-day Finland. RESULTS: Children with two parents who were forced migrants have higher mortality than children with two parents born in Northern, Southern and Western Finland, but similar or lower mortality than the subpopulation of children whose parents were born in the more comparable areas of Eastern Finland. For women and men, a mortality advantage is largest for external causes and persists after controlling for socio-economic factors. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that forced migration can have a beneficial impact on the mortality of later generations, at least in the case where forced migrants are able to move to contextually similar locations that offer opportunities for rapid integration and social mobility. The findings also highlight the importance of making appropriate comparisons when evaluating the impact of forced migration.

Religion and mental health in young adulthood: a register-based study on differences by religious affiliation in sickness absence due to mental disorders in Finland.

BACKGROUND: Religiosity and spirituality are known to be positively correlated with health. This is the first study to analyse the interrelation between religious denomination and sickness absence due to mental disorders using population register data with detailed ICD codes. METHODS: The follow-up study was based on the entire population born in Finland between 1984 and 1996 (N=794 476). Each person was observed from age 20 over the period from 2004 to 2018. Cox proportional hazards models were applied to analyse the association between religious denomination and first-time sickness allowance receipts for any cause and mental disorder. Mental disorders were categorised as severe mental illness (F20-F31), depression (F32-F33), anxiety (F40-F48) and any other mental disorder (all other F codes). Men and women were analysed separately. RESULTS: The differences in sickness absence due to mental disorder were substantial between religious affiliations. Compared with members of the Evangelical Lutheran state church, the relative hazard for mental disorders among non-affiliated women was 1.34 (95% CI 1.30 to 1.39), while that among women with other religions was 1.27 (95% CI 1.19 to 1.35), after adjusting for own and parental characteristics. The corresponding numbers for men were 1.45 (95% CI 1.39 to 1.50) and 1.42 (95% CI 1.30 to 1.54), respectively. The gradient was larger for severe mental illness and depression than for anxiety and other mental disorders. For any cause of sickness absence, there was no difference between Lutherans, non-affiliated individuals and those with other religions. CONCLUSIONS: Epidemiologists and public health practitioners should further examine the association between mental disorders and church membership using administrative registers.

Religion and Fertility: A Longitudinal Register Study Examining Differences by Sex, Parity, Partner's Religion, and Religious Conversion in Finland.

We use longitudinal data on religious affiliation in Finland to examine childbearing behavior. All analyses are based on detailed fertility information from the Finnish national register of each person's religious denomination for men and women born in 1956-1975. We identify higher fertility according to parity among members of the Evangelical Lutheran state church and other Protestant churches, and lower fertility among individuals with no religious affiliation. Most other religious groups-Orthodox Christians, Jews, Muslims, and adherents of Eastern religions-have intermediate levels of fertility. We also find that religious converts, that is, those observed with more than one religious denomination over their life course, typically are similar to the non-converts of the group they convert to, though with more distinct deviations from the Finnish population. Women show larger differences by religious affiliation than men. We find the largest differences across religions when we examine the proportion of childless men and women. Overall, differences between religious groups are rather modest, and childbearing patterns are quite similar. Our results provide, to our knowledge, the first examination of religion and fertility using national-level longitudinal data.

First Partner Choice in a Native Minority: The Role of Own and Parental Ethnolinguistic Affiliation.

Despite increasing diversity within many societies, ethnically endogamous unions remain common. In contexts where one ethnic minority has lived alongside the majority for centuries, understanding who partners with whom is central to understanding how ethnic boundaries are maintained or dissolved. This study examines the role of own and parental ethnolinguistic affiliation for the first partner choice in Finland. We provide a unique test of the relevance of ethnic endogamy across two generations, in a context where both groups are native, but one (Finnish speakers) overwhelmingly outnumbers the other (Swedish speakers). Using register data on the total population, we examine how a person's ethnolinguistic affiliation and background affect the choice of the first cohabiting partner in terms of the partner's ethnolinguistic affiliation and background. We apply discrete-time competing risk models for men and women born 1970-1983. Results indicate that Swedish-registered individuals with two Swedish-registered parents are, by far, the most likely to partner with another Swedish-registered person with endogamous background. Partnering with a Swedish-registered person with exogamous background is most likely among individuals who themselves come from mixed unions. Patterns are remarkably consistent across gender, and adjustments for education and residential area only marginally alter the results.

A matter of time: Bateman's principles and mating success as count and duration across social strata in contemporary Finland.

Bateman's principles heavily influence the understanding of human reproductive behaviour. Yet, few rigorous studies on Bateman's principles in contemporary industrialized populations exist. Most studies use small samples, exclude non-marital unions, and disregard recent insights on within-population heterogeneity in mating strategies. We assess mating success and reproductive success using population-wide Finnish register data on marital and non-marital cohabitations and fertility. We examine variability across social strata in the Bateman principles and analyse the mate count, the cumulated duration with a mate, and the association with reproductive success. Results support Bateman's first and second principles. Regarding Bateman's third principle, the number of mates is more positively associated with reproductive success for men than women, but this association is driven by ever having a mate. Having more than one mate is on average associated with lower reproductive success. However, for men in the lowest income quartile, having more than one mate positively predicts reproductive success. Longer union duration is associated with higher reproductive success, and more so for men. We note that sex differences in the relationship between mating success and reproductive success differ by social strata, and argue that mate duration may be an important component of mating success alongside mate count.

Who Migrates and Who Returns in a Context of Free Mobility? An Analysis of the Reason for Migration, Income and Family Trajectories.

The establishment of free mobility in Europe has lowered barriers to movement and given rise to diversity in migration and integration patterns. However, in part due to data constraints, it is difficult to study migration motives, integration and return migration together. Using linked Finnish and Swedish register data covering the period 1988-2005, we address these processes within the same framework and study how the reason for migration and trajectories at the destination relate to return migration. In particular, we assess the migration motives of 13,948 Finnish migrants in Sweden using pre- and post-migration information. Finland and Sweden have been part of the common Nordic labour market since 1954, which has allowed Nordic citizens to move without barriers between the two countries. We also study how income trajectories and trajectories of family formation differ across the assessed motives, and analyse how return migration risks are shaped by the motive and by trajectories of income and family formation. Results reveal that labour and tied migrants are initially more likely to have family abroad than student migrants. Student migrants instead continue their education and experience a steeper income increase. The income of student migrants eventually catches up and surpasses that of labour migrants. Return migration risks are shaped by trajectories at the destination, but also by the initial migration motive. These findings underline the importance of assessing diversity across migrants to gain a better understanding of how different migrant groups fare in the destination country and how this relates to subsequent moves.

Suicide Around the Anniversary of a Parent's Death in Sweden.

Importance: Bereavement following parental death experienced in adulthood may be associated with suicide over many years, but this risk has received scant attention. Objective: To investigate whether the risk of suicide increases among adult children around the anniversary of a parent's death. Design, Setting, and Participants: This case-crossover study used Swedish register-based longitudinal data from 1990 to 2016, based on the entire national population. Participants included all adults aged 18 to 65 years who experienced parental death and subsequently died by suicide. Conditional logistic regression was used to quantify the association between the anniversary (or preanniversary and postanniversary periods) and suicide, controlling for time-invariant confounding. All analyses were stratified by sex of the offspring. The analyses were also stratified by the sex of the deceased parent, time since parental death, age, and marital status. Data analyses were performed in June 2022. Exposures: Anniversary of a parent's death (or preanniversary and postanniversary periods). Main Outcomes and Measures: Suicide. Results: Of 7694 individuals who died by suicide (76% intentional self-harm), 2255 (29%) were women, and the median (IQR) age at suicide was 55 (47-62) years. There was evidence of an anniversary reaction among women, with a 67% increase in the odds of suicide when exposed to the period from the anniversary to 2 days after the anniversary, compared with when not being exposed (odds ratio [OR], 1.67; 95% CI, 1.07-2.62). The risk was particularly pronounced among maternally bereaved women (OR, 2.29; 95% CI, 1.20-4.40) and women who were never married (OR, 2.08; 95% CI, 0.99-4.37), although the latter was not statistically significant. An increased risk of suicide from the day before up to the anniversary was observed among women bereaved between the ages of 18 and 34 years (OR, 3.46; 95% CI, 1.14-10.56) and between the ages of 50 and 65 years (OR, 2.53; 95% CI, 1.04-6.15). Men had an attenuated suicide risk for the period from the day before up to the anniversary (OR, 0.57; 95% CI, 0.36-0.92). Conclusions and Relevance: These findings suggest that the anniversary of a parent's death is associated with an increased suicide risk among women. Women bereaved at younger or older ages, those who were maternally bereaved, and those who never married appeared to be particularly vulnerable. Families and social and health care professionals need to consider anniversary reactions in suicide prevention.

Birth order and sickness absence: Register-based evidence from Finland.

BACKGROUND: In working ages, sickness absence is strongly related to persons' health condition. We studied how birth order was associated with receipt of sickness allowance, distinguishing between mental disorders, musculoskeletal disorders and injuries. METHODS: A follow-up study based on the entire Finnish population was conducted for sibling groups born 1969-1982, in which each sibling was observed from age 35 years in the period 2004-2018. Focus was on within-family variation in first-time sickness allowance receipt. RESULTS: Results of stratified Cox regressions revealed that each increase in birth order was associated with a slightly higher risk of sickness absence from any cause. For mental disorders, associations were stronger; the hazard ratio as compared to first borns was 1.03 (95% CI: 0.98-1.08) of second borns, 1.10 (0.99-1.22) of third borns, and 1.52 (1.25-1.85) of fourth or higher borns. Corresponding numbers for musculoskeletal disorders were 1.12 (1.07-1.17), 1.19 (1.09-1.30) and 1.15 (0.96-1.38), and for injuries 1.06 (1.01-1.12), 1.09 (1.21-1.14) and 0.96 (0.77-1.20), respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Birth order effects were generally stronger for women than men, and to some extent influenced by educational level, occupation, income, and family composition. Possible latent mechanisms behind the associations may relate to within-family dynamics at childhood.

Less Is More? Repartnering and Completed Cohort Fertility in Finland.

An extensive literature theorizes the role of repartnering for cohort fertility and whether union dissolution can be an engine for fertility. A large share of higher order unions are nonmarital cohabitations, but most previous studies on completed cohort fertility have analyzed only marital unions, and none have incorporated nonmarital cohabitations using population-level data. To analyze the relationship between the number of unions and cohort fertility for men and women, we use Poisson regression with Finnish register data to enumerate every birth, marriage, and cohabitation among the 1969-1972 birth cohorts at ages 18-46. We show that dissolutions of first cohabitations are the main pathway to repartnering and that most higher order unions are cohabitations. Nonmarital repartnering is a strong predictor of low fertility. In contrast, remarriage is positively associated with cohort fertility. Because the bulk of first-union dissolutions and higher order unions are nonmarital, repartnering is not an efficient engine for fertility at the aggregate level. Marriage and cohabitation are far from indistinguishable in a country often described as a second demographic transition forerunner.

Substance use disorder and suicide-related behaviour around dates of parental death and its anniversaries: a register-based cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Parental death and its anniversaries, including anticipation of these dates, might cause distress and increase the risk of substance use disorder and suicide-related behaviour in bereaved adolescents and young adults. We examined whether the risk of substance use disorder and suicide-related behaviour increases around the date of parental death and subsequent anniversaries. METHODS: Using Swedish national registers, we conducted a cohort study of individuals aged 12-24 years. We included individuals aged 12-24 years between Jan 1, 2001, and Dec 31, 2014, whose parents were alive at entry (n=1 858 327) and followed up with them until the end of age 24 years. We excluded individuals with a half-sibling, a history of emigration, a previous record of the outcome events, a parental death before study entry, two parental deaths on the same day during the follow-up, or missing data for relevant variables. Follow-up ended on the day of an outcome event or on Dec 31, 2014; at age 25 years, emigration, or death; or a year before the second parental death. We studied substance use disorder and suicide-related behaviour outcomes separately and included non-fatal and fatal events in both outcomes. We used Cox regression to estimate hazard ratios (HRs), controlling for baseline psychiatric, demographic, and socioeconomic characteristics. Parental death was modelled as a time-varying exposure over 72 monthly periods, starting from 1 year before the parental death to the fifth year and later after the death. Unmeasured confounding was also addressed in within-individual comparisons using a case-crossover design. FINDINGS: During follow-up (median 7·5 [IQR 4·3-10·6] years), there were 42 854 substance use disorder events, with a crude rate of 3·1 per 1000 person-years. For suicide-related behaviour, there were 19 827 events, with a crude rate of 1·4 per 1000 person-years. Most of the events studied were non-fatal. In the month of parental death, the HR for substance use disorder risk was 1·89 (95% CI 1·07-3·33) among male participants, and, for suicide-related behaviour, was 3·76 (1·79-7·89) among male participants and 2·90 (1·61-5·24) among female participants. In male participants, there was an increased risk around the first anniversary (substance use disorder: HR 2·64 [95% CI 1·56-4·46] during the anniversary month; 2·21 [1·25-3·89] for the subsequent month; and for suicide-related behaviour: 3·18 [1·32-7·66] for the subsequent month). Among female participants, an increased risk of substance use disorder recurred around every year consistently in the month before the anniversary of the death and there was an increased risk for suicide-related behaviour in the months of the first and second anniversaries. INTERPRETATION: Although effect sizes were large in this cohort study, the number of individuals who had the outcomes was small. Nevertheless, adolescents and young adults, especially women and girls, who had the death of a parent showed increased risk of substance use disorder and suicide-related behaviour around the first few death anniversaries. Adolescents and young adults, especially women and girls, who had the death of a parent could benefit from preventive measures to reduce distress around the first few years of death anniversaries. FUNDING: Swedish Research Council.

Forced Migration and the Childbearing of Women and Men: A Disruption of the Tempo and Quantum of Fertility?

It is well known that migrant fertility is associated with age at migration, but little is known about this relationship for forced migrants. We study an example of displacement in which the entire population of Finnish Karelia was forced to move elsewhere in Finland in the 1940s. This displacement was unique because of its size and scale, because we have data on almost the whole population of both men and women who moved, and because of the similarity between origin and destination. These aspects enable us to investigate the disruptive impact of forced migration, net of other factors such as adaptation and selection. For all ages at migration from one to 20, female forced migrants had lower levels of completed fertility than similar women born in present-day Finland, which suggests a permanent impact of migration. However, women born in the same year as the initial forced migration showed no difference, which may indicate the presence of a counterbalancing fertility-increasing effect, as observed elsewhere for people born during a humanitarian crisis. There is less evidence of an impact for men, which suggests a gendered impact of forced migration-and its timing-on fertility. Results are similar after controlling for social and spatial mobility, indicating that there may be no major trade-off between reproduction and these forms of mobility.

Birth order and alcohol-related mortality by ethnic origin and national context: Within-family comparisons for Finland and Sweden.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies have found that birth order is an important predictor of later life health, including hospitalisation for alcohol use. We examine the relationship between birth order and alcohol-related mortality in two national contexts, within native families who differ on ethnic origin. METHODS: We study the association between birth order and alcohol-related mortality after age 17, using Finnish register data for cohorts born 1953-1999 and Swedish register data for cohorts born 1940-1999. We apply Cox proportional hazard models and use sibling fixed effects that eliminate confounding by factors shared by siblings. We separate full-sibling groups by ethnic origin, which for Finland means mother's and father's Finnish or Swedish ethnolinguistic affiliation. For Sweden, we distinguish native-born according to whether one or both parents were born in Sweden or Finland. RESULTS: We find a positive correlation between birth order and alcohol-related mortality, but only for ethnic Finns in Finland and primarily men. Within these sibling groups, second-borns have an alcohol-related mortality risk that is 9% higher than that of first-borns, third-borns 19 % higher, fourth-borns 22 % higher, and fifth- or higher-borns 47 % higher. No such birth order associations can be found for any of the other ethnic groups analysed in Finland or Sweden. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that cultural-related behaviours typical for ethnic groups, and the national context in which they are studied, are relevant for whether any association between birth order and alcohol-related mortality can be observed. Differences in the social interplay within the family may be an important factor.

Life Expectancy of the Ethnically Mixed: Register-Based Evidence from Native Finns.

As the ethnic composition around the world is becoming more diverse, the need to produce vital statistics for ethnically mixed populations is continuously increasing. Our aim is to provide the first life expectancy estimates for individuals with uniform Finnish, uniform Swedish, and mixed Finnish-Swedish backgrounds, based on individuals in the native population of Finland who can be linked to both their parents. Life expectancy at birth in the period 2005-2015 was calculated from population and mortality numbers at the one-year level based on each person's sex, year of birth, and the unique ethnolinguistic affiliation of the index person and each parent. Swedish-registered individuals with Swedish-registered parents had the longest life expectancy at birth, or 85.68 years (95% CI: 85.60-85.77) for females and 81.36 for males (95% CI: 81.30-81.42), as compared to 84.76 years (95% CI: 84.72-84.79) and 78.89 years (95% CI: 78.86-78.92) for Finnish-registered females and males with Finnish-registered parents. Persons with mixed backgrounds were found in between those with uniform Finnish and uniform Swedish backgrounds. An individual's own ethnolinguistic affiliation is nevertheless more important for longevity than parental affiliation. Similar register-based analyses for other countries with mixed populations would be useful.

Sickness Absence and Disability Pension in the Very Long Term: A Finnish Register-Based Study With 20 Years Follow-Up.

Sickness allowance is paid for short-term sickness absence and is thus an indicator of temporary ill health, but it is also associated with a heightened risk of receiving disability pension. Using event history analysis, we examined the long-term risk for disability pension receipt after first observed receipt of medically certified sickness allowance in each single year after sickness allowance was first recorded. Utilizing longitudinal data from the Finnish population register, covering the period 1989-2010, we observed 110,675 individuals aged 16-40 years at baseline. Using discrete-time hazard models, we estimated how the first observed receipt of sickness allowance was related to the risk of receiving disability pension, with an average follow-up time of 20.6 years. In this population, about 40 percent received sickness allowance and 10 percent received disability pension. In the first years after sickness allowance receipt, there was a substantial difference between long-term and short-term sickness allowance recipients in the hazard of becoming a disability pensioner. This difference levelled out over time, but even 20 years after the first observed sickness allowance receipt, the hazard of disability retirement was more than 15 times higher than that of non-recipients of sickness allowance. Patterns were similar for men and women. First observed receipt of sickness allowance is a powerful predictor for disability pension receipt, also in the very distant future. Thus, it can be used to monitor people with heightened risk of becoming more permanently ill and falling outside the labour market.

Ethnic Composition of Couples and Mutual Health Benefit Receipt: Register-Based Evidence from Finland.

The literature on health dependencies among partners typically ignores diversity of partnership characteristics. One salient example is the ethnic composition. We extend prior work on partnerships and health by investigating how married and cohabiting partners mutually influence each other's receipt of health-related benefits, focusing on how such correlations vary with the couple's ethnic composition. We study partners' mutual receipt of sickness allowance and disability pension in ethnically endogamous and exogamous couples in Finland. The population consists of native individuals in similar socioeconomic positions but belonging to two different ethnic groups-Finnish and Swedish speakers-who differ in health and family life. Using data from population registers, we estimate discrete-time hazard models for first-time benefit receipt, as related to partner's benefit receipt, among midlife couples. We found evidence of mutual receipt of health benefits in both endogamous and exogamous couples, the correlation being strongest for disability pension. Partner correlation in disability pension receipt is slightly stronger in endogamous Swedish than in endogamous Finnish couples, while women in exogamous couples are slightly less sensitive to men's receipt than vice versa. The results show that mutual health may be heterogeneous across couples that differ in ethnic composition.

Morale in Old Age and Its Association with Sociodemographic, Social, and Health-Related Factors in Different Age Groups.

Morale can be viewed as a future-oriented optimism or pessimism regarding challenges associated with aging and is closely related to subjective well-being. Promoting morale in old age could be considered to have important implications for aging well, and increased knowledge about morale in different stages of old age is needed. Hence, the aim of this study was to investigate factors associated with morale in different age groups among old people. Data were derived from a survey conducted in 2016, as a part of the Gerontological Regional Database (GERDA). The sample consisted of 9,047 individuals aged between 65 and 86 years from Ostrobothnia and Southern Ostrobothnia in Finland, and Västerbotten in Sweden. Morale was measured with the Philadelphia Geriatric Center Morale Scale (PGCMS) and regressed upon a number of sociodemographic, social, and health-related factors using linear regression analyses. The results showed that older age was an independent factor explaining lower level of morale. Additionally, the sociodemographic, social, and health-related variables could explain a large proportion of the variance in morale. Perceived loneliness, having gone through a crisis in life, poor self-rated health, and depression were associated with lower morale, and sleeping well with higher morale, in all age groups. Furthermore, the oldest age groups seem to be more exposed to several risk factors of lower morale identified in this study. Multidimensional interventions targeting especially social and mental health and the oldest-old could therefore be recommended.

Naturalization in a Context of Free Mobility: Evidence from Cross-National Data on Finnish Immigrants in Sweden.

Using unique longitudinal microdata linking administrative records from Sweden and Finland, we study how immigrant naturalization relates to cultural proximity. We analyze how Swedish citizenship acquisition depends on mother tongue by comparing Swedish-speaking and Finnish-speaking immigrants from Finland, who arrived in Sweden in 1988-2004, and contrast with other Nordic-born immigrants. We treat return migration and naturalization as two elements in the decision process of immigrants, being the first to estimate competing risks models for naturalization and return migration for the same study group of persons. The setting of free mobility in the Nordic countries, together with economic, political and social similarities, implies that the direct benefits of naturalization are modest and the same for all Nordic-born immigrants in Sweden. Thus, we assess naturalization in an analytical framework where many confounding factors are circumvented and in which the study groups have grown up in the similar institutional setting. Swedish-speaking Finns are found to have an approximately 30 percent higher standardized risk of naturalization than Finnish-speaking Finns, and a 2.5 times higher risk as compared to people from the other Nordic countries. We argue that these differentials reflect the degree to which the groups broadly differ in affinity with Sweden.

Alcohol-related mortality by ethnic origin of natives: a prospective cohort study based on multigenerational population register data from Finland and Sweden.

OBJECTIVES: The aim was to assess alcohol-related mortality of persons with mixed and uniform ethnic origins in two national contexts. SETTING: Data were from the multigenerational population registers of the total population of Finland and Sweden observed from 1971 to 2017. Study persons were men and women of ethnic Finnish and Swedish background, born in their country of residence. PARTICIPANTS: Persons were born between 1953 and 1999. In Finland, ethnic origin was assessed through own, mother's and father's Finnish or Swedish ethnolinguistic affiliation. Data on Sweden included persons born in Sweden, with mother and father born in Sweden or Finland. A total of 2 997 867 and 4 148 794 persons were included in the Finnish and Swedish data, respectively. The total number of alcohol-related deaths by main cause was 13 204 and 3336. Cox regressions were used to examine associations. OUTCOME MEASURES: For the period 1971-2017, we studied alcohol as the main cause of death. For the period 1996-2017, we observed if alcohol was the main or contributing cause of death. Parallel analyses were performed for all-cause mortality. RESULTS: For men in Finland, the hazard rate of alcohol-related mortality of Swedish speakers with uniform Swedish background was 0.44 (95% CI: 0.38 to 0.52) that of Finnish speakers with uniform Finnish background. The corresponding hazard rate for women was 0.40 (95% CI: 0.28 to 0.55). In Sweden, the hazard rate of men with both parents born in Sweden was 0.40 (95% CI: 0.32 to 0.49) that of men with both parents born in Finland. The corresponding hazard rate for women was 0.50 (95% CI: 0.31 to 0.79). In both countries, persons with mixed background had an alcohol-related mortality rate between that of persons with uniform Finnish and Swedish background. CONCLUSION: The consistent pattern across countries necessitates increased policy attention towards offspring disadvantaged via parental ethnicity to minimise harmful consequences of alcohol consumption across and within ethnic groups.

Childlessness and union histories: evidence from Finnish population register data.

From an evolutionary perspective, childlessness may be considered a failure, as it implies that there will be no direct transmission of one's genetic material to later generations. It is also a pressing social issue, because in many contemporary advanced societies, levels of childlessness have increased, and particularly so among men. The absence of a partner is naturally a fundamental determinant of childlessness. Empirical evidence on how childlessness relates to individuals' partnership histories is nevertheless limited. This issue was analysed with Finnish population register data, which allow the complete cohabitation and marriage histories of individuals from age 18 years to be observed. For women and men born between 1969 and 1971, logistic regression models were estimated for childlessness at age 40 by partnership histories in terms of various stages in the process of union formation and dissolution, and accounting for several socioeconomic variables. A strong link between union histories and childlessness was found, with short partnership spells raising the risk of not becoming a parent. Later age when leaving the parental home raised female childlessness, while a short first-union duration related more strongly to male childlessness. These findings may be considered as providing insights into how specific life-history strategies affect reproductive outcomes, and highlight the need to develop new approaches to understand this feature of social inequality.

In sickness or in health? Register-based evidence on partners' mutual receipt of sickness allowance and disability pension.

Studies on partners' mutual receipt of benefits constitute a growing research field in the way individual health and health-related decisions depend on social relations. This paper provides the first study on the mutual receipt of sickness allowance. We analysed married and cohabiting couples' receipt of sickness allowance and disability pension by estimating discrete-time hazard models for individuals aged 40-65 years, using longitudinal register data from Finland. The data cover the period 1987-2011, and allowed us to explore socioeconomic and demographic variables at both the individual and couple level. We found strong and long-term interrelations in receipt behaviour and dependencies across benefit types. The risk of receiving sickness allowance increases by 50 per cent during the first years after the partner's first receipt of the same benefit, while the risk of receiving disability pension is twice as high even five years after the partner's receipt of the same. Women appear to be more instrumental than men in the production of health within the couple, even in a context of high level of state support, gender equality and female labour force participation. Their receipt of disability pension is more related to the male partner's receipt than vice versa. For sickness allowance receipt, the gender asymmetry is small. Mutual benefit receipt of benefits may relate not only to collateral health effects but also to shared preferences and partner selection. We cannot distinguish between the mechanisms. However, couples with more economic and social resources seem to be more efficient in joint decision making. Correlations are particularly strong in the immediate term, and for couples who are highly educated, for those with high income, and for those with children in the household. More effective policies may be needed to equalise information regarding benefits, and monitor the use, and potential misuse, of these health benefits.