Disentangling the intersection of inequities with health and malaria exposure: key lessons from rural communities in Northern Borneo.

BACKGROUND: The increasing incidence of Plasmodium knowlesi malaria poses a significant challenge to efforts to eliminate malaria from Malaysia. Macaque reservoirs, outdoors-biting mosquitoes, human activities, and agricultural work are key factors associated with the transmission of this zoonotic pathogen. However, gaps in knowledge regarding reasons that drive malaria persistence in rural Kudat, Sabah, Northern Borneo remain. This study was conducted to address this knowledge gap, to better understand the complexities of these entangled problems, and to initiate discussion regarding new countermeasures to address them. This study aims to highlight rural community members' perspectives regarding inequities to health relating to P. knowlesi malaria exposure. METHODS: From January to October 2022, a study using qualitative methods was conducted in four rural villages in Kudat district of Sabah, Malaysia. A total of nine in-depth interviews were conducted with community and faith leaders, after the completion of twelve focus group discussions with 26 photovoice participants. The interviews were conducted using the Sabah Malay dialect, audio-recorded, transcribed, and translated into English. The research team led the discussion and analysis, which was approved by participants through member checking at the community level. RESULTS: Participants identified disparity in health as a key issue affecting their health and livelihoods. Injustice in the social environment was also identified as a significant challenge, including the importance of listening to the voices of affected communities in disentangling the social and economic phenomena that can impact malaria control. Specific concerns included inadequate access to health-related resources and degradation of the environment. Participants recommended improving access to water and other necessities, increasing the availability of malaria control commodities in healthcare facilities, and developing sustainable programs to reduce socioeconomic disparities. CONCLUSION: Inequities to health emerged as a key concern for malaria control in rural Kudat, Sabah. A locally targeted malaria programme cantered on improving the social and economic disparities associated with health outcomes, could be a potential strategy for malaria prevention in such areas. Community-level perspectives gathered from this study can be used as a foundation for future discussions and dialogues among policymakers and community members for achieving greater transparency, improving social equity, and interoperability in addressing P. knowlesi malaria control.

Coordination of apicoplast transcription in a malaria parasite by internal and host cues.

The malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum has a nonphotosynthetic plastid called the apicoplast, which contains its own genome. Regulatory mechanisms for apicoplast gene expression remain poorly understood, despite this organelle being crucial for the parasite life cycle. Here, we identify a nuclear-encoded apicoplast RNA polymerase σ subunit (sigma factor) which, along with the α subunit, appears to mediate apicoplast transcript accumulation. This has a periodicity reminiscent of parasite circadian or developmental control. Expression of the apicoplast subunit gene, apSig, together with apicoplast transcripts, increased in the presence of the blood circadian signaling hormone melatonin. Our data suggest that the host circadian rhythm is integrated with intrinsic parasite cues to coordinate apicoplast genome transcription. This evolutionarily conserved regulatory system might be a future target for malaria treatment.

Exploring barriers to and facilitators of malaria prevention practices: a photovoice study with rural communities at risk to Plasmodium knowlesi malaria in Sabah, Malaysia.

BACKGROUND: The control of Plasmodium knowlesi malaria remains challenging due to the presence of macaque monkeys and predominantly outdoor-biting Anopheles mosquitoes around human settlements. This study aims to explore the barriers and facilitators related to prevention of mosquito bites among rural communities living in Sabah, Malaysia using the participatory visual method, photovoice. METHODS: From January through June 2022, 26 participants were recruited from four villages in Kudat, Sabah, using purposive sampling. Participants were male and female villagers, aged > 18 years old. After photovoice training in the villages, participants documented facilitators of and barriers related to avoiding mosquito bites using their own smartphone cameras, and provided narratives for their photos. Twelve Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) sessions in three rounds were held to share and discuss the photos, and to address challenges to the avoidance of mosquito bites. All discussions were conducted in the Sabah Malay dialect, and were video and audio recorded, transcribed, and analyzed using reflexive thematic analysis. The Ideation Model, a meta-theoretical model of behaviour change, underpinned this study. RESULTS: The most common types of barriers identified by participants included (I) intrapersonal factors such as low perceived threat of malaria, (II) livelihood and lifestyle activities consisting of the local economy and socio-cultural activities, and (III) physical and social environment. The facilitators were categorized into (I) intrapersonal reasons, including having the opportunity to stay indoors, especially women who are housewives, (II) social support by the households, neaighbours and healthcare workers, and (III) support from healthcare services and malaria awareness program. Participants emphasized the importance of stakeholder's support in implementing feasible and affordable approaches to P. knowlesi malaria control. CONCLUSION: Results provided insights regarding the challenges to preventing P. knowlesi malaria in rural Kudat, Sabah. The participation of communities in research was valuable in expanding knowledge of local challenges and highlighting possible ways to overcome barriers. These findings may be used to improve strategies for zoonotic malaria control, which is critical for advancing social change and minimizing health disparities in malaria prevention.

Seeing malaria through the eyes of affected communities: using photovoice to document local knowledge on zoonotic malaria causation and prevention practices among rural communities exposed to Plasmodium knowlesi malaria in Northern Borneo Island.

BACKGROUND: Many rural communities in Malaysian Borneo and Southeast Asia are at risk of Plasmodium knowlesi malaria. Multiple factors contribute to infection, however, a deep understanding of illness causation and prevention practices among at-risk communities remains limited. This study aims to document local knowledge on malaria causation and preventive practices of rural communities in Sabah, Malaysia, using photovoice-a participatory research method. METHODS: From January to June 2022, a photovoice study was conducted with rural communities in Matunggong subdistrict, Malaysia, to explore their experiences with and local knowledge of non-human primate malaria and prevention practices. The study included (1) an introductory phase in which participants were introduced to the photovoice method; (2) a documentation phase in which participants captured and narrated photos from their communities; (3) a discussion phase in which participants discussed photos and relevant topics through a series of three focus group discussions (FGDs) per village; and (4) a dissemination phase where selected photos were shared with key stakeholders through a photo exhibition. A purposively selected sample of 26 participants (adults > 18 years old, male, and female) from four villages participated in all phases of the study. The study activities were conducted in Sabah Malay dialect. Participants and the research team contributed to data review and analyses. RESULTS: Rural communities in Sabah, Malaysia possess local knowledge that attributes non-human primate malaria to natural factors related to the presence of mosquitoes that bite humans and which carry "kuman-malaria" or malaria parasite. Participants revealed various preventive practises ranging from traditional practises, including burning dried leaves and using plants that produce foul odours, to non-traditional approaches such as aerosols and mosquito repellents. By engaging with researchers and policymakers, the participants or termed as co-researchers in this study, showcased their ability to learn and appreciate new knowledge and perspectives and valued the opportunity to share their voices with policymakers. The study successfully fostered a balance of power dynamics between the co-researchers, research team members and policymakers. CONCLUSION: There were no misconceptions about malaria causation among study participants. The insights from study participants are relevant because of their living experience with the non-human malaria. It is critical to incorporate rural community perspectives in designing locally effective and feasible malaria interventions in rural Sabah, Malaysia. Future research can consider adapting the photovoice methodology for further research with the community toward building locally tailored-malaria strategies.

Plasmodium-a brief introduction to the parasites causing human malaria and their basic biology.

Malaria is one of the most devastating infectious diseases of humans. It is problematic clinically and economically as it prevails in poorer countries and regions, strongly hindering socioeconomic development. The causative agents of malaria are unicellular protozoan parasites belonging to the genus Plasmodium. These parasites infect not only humans but also other vertebrates, from reptiles and birds to mammals. To date, over 200 species of Plasmodium have been formally described, and each species infects a certain range of hosts. Plasmodium species that naturally infect humans and cause malaria in large areas of the world are limited to five-P. falciparum, P. vivax, P. malariae, P. ovale and P. knowlesi. The first four are specific for humans, while P. knowlesi is naturally maintained in macaque monkeys and causes zoonotic malaria widely in South East Asia. Transmission of Plasmodium species between vertebrate hosts depends on an insect vector, which is usually the mosquito. The vector is not just a carrier but the definitive host, where sexual reproduction of Plasmodium species occurs, and the parasite's development in the insect is essential for transmission to the next vertebrate host. The range of insect species that can support the critical development of Plasmodium depends on the individual parasite species, but all five Plasmodium species causing malaria in humans are transmitted exclusively by anopheline mosquitoes. Plasmodium species have remarkable genetic flexibility which lets them adapt to alterations in the environment, giving them the potential to quickly develop resistance to therapeutics such as antimalarials and to change host specificity. In this article, selected topics involving the Plasmodium species that cause malaria in humans are reviewed.

Field testing of a lightweight, inexpensive, and customisable 3D-printed mosquito light trap in the UK.

Mosquito surveillance is a fundamental component of planning and evaluating vector control programmes. However, logistical and cost barriers can hinder the implementation of surveillance, particularly in vector-borne disease-endemic areas and in outbreak scenarios in remote areas where the need is often most urgent. The increasing availability and reduced cost of 3D printing technology offers an innovative approach to overcoming these challenges. In this study, we assessed the field performance of a novel, lightweight 3D-printed mosquito light trap baited with carbon dioxide (CO2) in comparison with two gold-standard traps, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) light trap baited with CO2, and the BG Sentinel 2 trap with BG-Lure and CO2. Traps were run for 12 nights in a Latin square design at Rainham Marshes, Essex, UK in September 2018. The 3D-printed trap showed equivalent catch rates to the two commercially available traps. The 3D-printed trap designs are distributed free of charge in this article with the aim of assisting entomological field studies across the world.

Recent Incidence of Human Malaria Caused by Plasmodium knowlesi in the Villages in Kudat Peninsula, Sabah, Malaysia: Mapping of The Infection Risk Using Remote Sensing Data.

Plasmodium knowlesi (Pk) is a malaria parasite that naturally infects macaque monkeys in Southeast Asia. Pk malaria, the zoonosis transmitted from the infected monkeys to the humans by Anopheles mosquito vectors, is now a serious health problem in Malaysian Borneo. To create a strategic plan to control Pk malaria, it is important to estimate the occurrence of the disease correctly. The rise of Pk malaria has been explained as being due to ecological changes, especially deforestation. In this research, we analysed the time-series satellite images of MODIS (MODerate-resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) of the Kudat Peninsula in Sabah and created the "Pk risk map" on which the Land-Use and Land-Cover (LULC) information was visualised. The case number of Pk malaria of a village appeared to have a correlation with the quantity of two specific LULC classes, the mosaic landscape of oil palm groves and the nearby land-use patches of dense forest, surrounding the village. Applying a Poisson multivariate regression with a generalised linear mixture model (GLMM), the occurrence of Pk malaria cases was estimated from the population and the quantified LULC distribution on the map. The obtained estimations explained the real case numbers well, when the contribution of another risk factor, possibly the occupation of the villagers, is considered. This implies that the occurrence of the Pk malaria cases of a village can be predictable from the population of the village and the LULC distribution shown around it on the map. The Pk risk map will help to assess the Pk malaria risk distributions quantitatively and to discover the hidden key factors behind the spread of this zoonosis.

Method for the separation of mitochondria and apicoplast from the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum.

The growth and the survival of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum are critically dependent on the functions of the two organelles - the mitochondrion and the apicoplast. However, these two organelles have been known to be difficult to separate from each other when they are released from Plasmodium cell. We have been searching for the conditions with which separation of the mitochondrion and the apicoplast is achieved. In this study, we investigated how the two organelle's separation is affected when the pressure of the nitrogen gas to disrupt the Plasmodium cells by nitrogen cavitation method is lowered from the pressure regularly applied (1200 psi). The parasite cell was sufficiently disrupted even when nitrogen cavitation was carried out at 300 psi. The obtained mitochondrial sample was much less contaminated by DNA compared with the sample prepared using the gas at the regular pressure. After the fractionation by Percoll density gradient, the mitochondrion and the apicoplast from the 300 psi cell lysate exhibited different separation profiles. This is the first experimental evidence that indicates the mitochondrion and the apicoplast of P. falciparum are separable from each other.

The apicoplast genome of Leucocytozoon caulleryi, a pathogenic apicomplexan parasite of the chicken.

Leucocytozoon caulleryi, a haemosporidian parasite of the chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus), can be highly pathogenic and often fatal. Although this parasite is extremely relevant to veterinary science, knowledge of its genomic features is limited. To gain information applicable to developing novel control methods for the parasite, we analyzed the apicoplast genome of L. caulleryi. This extranuclear organellar DNA of 85.1% A + T and a unit of 34,779 bp was found to encode almost the same set of genes as the plastid genome of Plasmodium falciparum, including 16 tRNA and 30 protein coding genes, and except for one open reading frame, ORF91 absent in L. caulleryi. As in P. falciparum, the L. caulleryi apicoplast DNA contains two sets of a unique inverted repeat (IR), each one 5,253 bp and encoding genes specifying one large and one small rRNA subunit and nine tRNAs but no protein, and separated by a unique 13 bp sequence. Studies of several haemosporidian apicoplast DNA sequences have identified a corresponding IR region; however, none of these studies has looked at the complete sequence, even for well-studied species such as P. falciparum. Phylogenetic studies using a concatenated amino acid sequence based on the open reading frames confirmed the close relationship between L. caulleryi and Plasmodium spp. In this study, we determined the nucleotide sequence of the entire L. caulleryi apicoplast genome, including the region connecting the two IR units. This is the first report of the complete nucleotide sequence of a haemosporidian apicoplast DNA with a canonical IR.

Synergy of ferrous ion on 5-aminolevulinic acid-mediated growth inhibition of Plasmodium falciparum.

Haem biosynthesis appeared to be a target of malaria therapy because 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA), a haem biosynthesis starting material, with light exposure or a high amount of ALA alone reduced Plasmodium falciparum growth to undetectable level. However, the administration of a high dose of ALA is unrealistic for clinical therapy. We found that Fe(2+) enhanced P. falciparum-killing potency of ALA and significantly inhibited the parasite growth. The intermediates of haem biosynthesis localized to the parasite organelles, and coproporphyrin III was the most accumulated intermediate. These novel findings may lead to development of a new anti-malarial drug using ALA and Fe(2+).

The unique structure of the apicoplast genome of the rodent malaria parasite Plasmodium chabaudi chabaudi.

The apicoplast, a non-photosynthetic plastid of apicomplexan species, has an extremely reduced but highly conserved genome. Here, the apicoplast genome of the rodent malaria parasite Plasmodium chabaudi chabaudi (Pcc) isolate CB was characterized. Although the set of genes in the genome is identical, the copy number of some tRNA genes differs between Pcc and other Plasmodium species because the Pcc DNA has only one rRNA/tRNA gene cluster, which is normally duplicated in other species. The location of the duplicated trnR(ACG) and trnM implies that one of the duplicated clusters in the ancestral molecule has been lost due to an intramolecular recombination event. The Pcc DNA occurs in two isoforms with an internal inversion between them. The presence of a unique variant in the duplicated trnT gene suggests that the two isoforms are interconvertible. This is the first report of the complete nucleotide sequence of a Plasmodium apicoplast DNA.

Autophagy-related Atg8 localizes to the apicoplast of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum.

Autophagy is a membrane-mediated degradation process, which is governed by sequential functions of Atg proteins. Although Atg proteins are highly conserved in eukaryotes, protozoa possess only a partial set of Atg proteins. Nonetheless, almost all protozoa have the complete factors belonging to the Atg8 conjugation system, namely, Atg3, Atg4, Atg7, and Atg8. Here, we report the biochemical properties and subcellular localization of the Atg8 protein of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum (PfAtg8). PfAtg8 is expressed during intra-erythrocytic development and associates with membranes likely as a lipid-conjugated form. Fluorescence microscopy and immunoelectron microscopy show that PfAtg8 localizes to the apicoplast, a four membrane-bound non-photosynthetic plastid. Autophagosome-like structures are not observed in the erythrocytic stages. These data suggest that, although Plasmodium parasites have lost most Atg proteins during evolution, they use the Atg8 conjugation system for the unique organelle, the apicoplast.

The apicomplexan plastid and its evolution.

Protistan species belonging to the phylum Apicomplexa have a non-photosynthetic secondary plastid-the apicoplast. Although its tiny genome and even the entire nuclear genome has been sequenced for several organisms bearing the organelle, the reason for its existence remains largely obscure. Some of the functions of the apicoplast, including housekeeping ones, are significantly different from those of other plastids, possibly due to the organelle's unique symbiotic origin.

The Plasmodium HU homolog, which binds the plastid DNA sequence-independent manner, is essential for the parasite's survival.

The nuclear genome of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum encodes a homolog of the bacterial HU protein (PfHU). In this study, we characterised PfHU's physiological function. PfHU, which is targeted exclusively to the parasite's plastid, bound its natural target--the plastid DNA--sequence-independently and complemented lack of HU in Escherichia coli. The HU gene could not be knocked-out from the genome of Plasmodium berghei, implying that HU is important for the parasite's survival. As the human cell lacks the HU homolog, PfHU is a potential target for drugs to control malaria.

Mitochondria and apicoplast of Plasmodium falciparum: behaviour on subcellular fractionation and the implication.

The mitochondrion and the apicoplast of the malaria parasite, Plasmodium spp. is microscopically observed in a close proximity to each other. In this study, we tested the suitability of two different separation techniques--Percoll density gradient centrifugation and fluorescence-activated organelle sorting--for improving the purity of mitochondria isolated from the crude organelle preparation of Plasmodium falciparum. To our surprise, the apicoplast was inseparable from the plasmodial mitochondrion by each method. This implies these two plasmodial organelles are bound each other. This is the first experimental evidence of a physical binding between the two organelles in Plasmodium.

Genome sequence of Theileria parva, a bovine pathogen that transforms lymphocytes.

We report the genome sequence of Theileria parva, an apicomplexan pathogen causing economic losses to smallholder farmers in Africa. The parasite chromosomes exhibit limited conservation of gene synteny with Plasmodium falciparum, and its plastid-like genome represents the first example where all apicoplast genes are encoded on one DNA strand. We tentatively identify proteins that facilitate parasite segregation during host cell cytokinesis and contribute to persistent infection of transformed host cells. Several biosynthetic pathways are incomplete or absent, suggesting substantial metabolic dependence on the host cell. One protein family that may generate parasite antigenic diversity is not telomere-associated.

Organelle-specific cochaperonins in apicomplexan parasites.

Protein maturation in eukaryotic organelles requires the type I chaperonin system; this comprises chaperonin 60 (Cpn60) and its cochaperonin. We have re-examined and revised the sequence of the nuclear genes specifying organellar cochaperonins in Plasmodium falciparum (Pf). One gene encodes a typical cochaperonin (PfCpn10) whereas the other (encoding PfCpn20) specifies two Cpn10 domains arranged in tandem as in plant chloroplasts. Transfection experiments using fluorescent reporters showed specific localization of PfCpn10 to the mitochondrion and PfCpn20 to the plastid. As P. falciparum also has two Cpn60s, one of which is targeted specifically to the mitochondrion and the other exclusively to the plastid, each organelle has a distinct type I chaperonin system. Comparative sequence analysis extended these findings to several other apicomplexan parasites that have both a mitochondrion and a plastid. Phylogenetic analysis suggests the Cpn10s and Cpn20s of apicomplexans are independently monophyletic. The apicomplexan Cpn10 is phylogenetically related to other mitochondrial versions but a significant relationship between apicomplexan Cpn20s and other cochaperonins was not established.

The plastidic DNA replication enzyme complex of Plasmodium falciparum.

The replication and repair of organellar genomes in the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum is poorly understood. We have assessed the properties of an open reading frame Pfprex (formerly known as pom1) and confirm that it specifies a multi-domain polypeptide with DNA primase, DNA helicase, DNA polymerase and 3'-5' exonuclease activities. The sequence of the primase/helicase domain is phylogenetically related to the T7-bacteriophage gene 4 product and mammalian mitochondrial helicase, Twinkle. Despite that, the N-terminal sequence of this multi-domain polypeptide directs a green fluorescent protein reporter specifically to the P. falciparum apicoplast and not to the mitochondrion. Phylogenetic analysis placed the DNA polymerase sequence with the family A bacterial polymerases, most closely to those of the thermophilic Aquifex species. Notably, the malarial enzyme was optimally active at 75 degrees C. Pfprex is the first example of a gene encoding contiguous DNA polymerase, DNA primase and DNA helicase components. We propose it has a key role in replication of the malarial plastid genome, a validated drug target.

Enzymes for heme biosynthesis are found in both the mitochondrion and plastid of the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum.

All eight enzymes required for de novo heme biosynthesis have been predicted from the nuclear genome of the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. We have studied the subcellular localization of three of these using a GFP reporter in live transfected parasites. The first enzyme in the pathway delta-aminolevulinic acid synthase (ALAS) is targeted to the mitochondrion, but the next two enzymes porphobilinogen synthase (PBGS) and hydroxymethylbilane synthase (HMBS) are targeted to the plastid. An enzymatically active recombinant version of PBGS from P. falciparum was over-expressed and its activity found to be stimulated by Mg2+ (and enhanced by Mn2+) but not by Zn2+. A hypothetical scheme for the exchange of intermediates in heme biosynthesis between the mitochondrion and plastid organelle, as well as organelle attachment is discussed.