Influence of the spaceflight environment on macrophage lineages.

Spaceflight and terrestrial spaceflight analogs can alter immune phenotypes. Macrophages are important immune cells that bridge the innate and adaptive immune systems and participate in immunoregulatory processes of homeostasis. Furthermore, macrophages are critically involved in initiating immunity, defending against injury and infection, and are also involved in immune resolution and wound healing. Heterogeneous populations of macrophage-type cells reside in many tissues and cause a variety of tissue-specific effects through direct or indirect interactions with other physiological systems, including the nervous and endocrine systems. It is vital to understand how macrophages respond to the unique environment of space to safeguard crew members with appropriate countermeasures for future missions in low Earth orbit and beyond. This review highlights current literature on macrophage responses to spaceflight and spaceflight analogs.

Temporal regulation of the Mediator complex during muscle proliferation, differentiation, regeneration, aging, and disease.

Genesis of skeletal muscle relies on the differentiation and fusion of mono-nucleated muscle progenitor cells into the multi-nucleated muscle fiber syncytium. The temporally-controlled cellular and morphogenetic changes underlying this process are initiated by a series of highly coordinated transcription programs. At the core, the myogenic differentiation cascade is driven by muscle-specific transcription factors, i.e., the Myogenic Regulatory Factors (MRFs). Despite extensive knowledge on the function of individual MRFs, very little is known about how they are coordinated. Ultimately, highly specific coordination of these transcription programs is critical for their masterfully timed transitions, which in turn facilitates the intricate generation of skeletal muscle fibers from a naïve pool of progenitor cells. The Mediator complex links basal transcriptional machinery and transcription factors to regulate transcription and could be the integral component that coordinates transcription factor function during muscle differentiation, growth, and maturation. In this study, we systematically deciphered the changes in Mediator complex subunit expression in skeletal muscle development, regeneration, aging, and disease. We incorporated our in vitro and in vivo experimental results with analysis of publicly available RNA-seq and single nuclei RNA-seq datasets and uncovered the regulation of Mediator subunits in different physiological and temporal contexts. Our experimental results revealed that Mediator subunit expression during myogenesis is highly dynamic. We also discovered unique temporal patterns of Mediator expression in muscle stem cells after injury and during the early regeneration period, suggesting that Mediator subunits may have unique contributions to directing muscle stem cell fate. Although we observed few changes in Mediator subunit expression in aging muscles compared to younger muscles, we uncovered extensive heterogeneity of Mediator subunit expression in dystrophic muscle nuclei, characteristic of chronic muscle degeneration and regeneration cycles. Taken together, our study provides a glimpse of the complex regulation of Mediator subunit expression in the skeletal muscle cell lineage and serves as a springboard for mechanistic studies into the function of individual Mediator subunits in skeletal muscle.

YTHDF2 governs muscle size through a targeted modulation of proteostasis.

The regulation of proteostasis is fundamental for maintenance of muscle mass and function. Activation of the TGF-ß pathway drives wasting and premature aging by favoring the proteasomal degradation of structural muscle proteins. Yet, how this critical post-translational mechanism is kept in check to preserve muscle health remains unclear. Here, we reveal the molecular link between the post-transcriptional regulation of m6A-modified mRNA and the modulation of SMAD-dependent TGF-ß signaling. We show that the m6A-binding protein YTHDF2 is essential to determining postnatal muscle size. Indeed, muscle-specific genetic deletion of YTHDF2 impairs skeletal muscle growth and abrogates the response to hypertrophic stimuli. We report that YTHDF2 controls the mRNA stability of the ubiquitin ligase ASB2 with consequences on anti-growth gene program activation through SMAD3. Our study identifies a post-transcriptional to post-translational mechanism for the coordination of gene expression in muscle.

Molecular regulation of satellite cells via intercellular signaling.

Somatic stem cells are tissue-specific reserve cells tasked to sustain tissue homeostasis in adulthood and/or effect tissue regeneration after traumatic injury. The stem cells of skeletal muscle tissue are the satellite cells, which were originally described and named after their localization beneath the muscle fiber lamina and attached to the multi-nucleated muscle fibers. During adult homeostasis, satellite cells are maintained in quiescence, a state of reversible cell cycle arrest. Yet, upon injury, satellite cells are rapidly activated, becoming highly mitotically active to generate large numbers of myoblasts that differentiate and fuse to regenerate the injured muscle fibers. A subset self-renews to replenish the pool of muscle stem cells.Complex intrinsic gene regulatory networks maintain the quiescent state of satellite cells, or upon injury, direct their activation, proliferation, differentiation and self-renewal. Molecular cues from the satellite cells' environment provide the essential information as to when and where satellite cells are to stay quiescent or break quiescence and effect regenerative myogenesis. Predominantly, these cues are secreted, diffusible or membrane-bound ligands that bind to and activate their specific cognate receptors on the satellite cell to activate downstream signaling cascades and elicit context-specific cell behavior. This review aims to offer a concise overview of major intercellular signaling pathways regulating satellite cells during quiescence and in injury-induced skeletal muscle regeneration.

Reduced Sarcolemmal Membrane Repair Exacerbates Striated Muscle Pathology in a Mouse Model of Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy.

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a common X-linked degenerative muscle disorder that involves mutations in the DMD gene that frequently reduce the expression of the dystrophin protein, compromising the structural integrity of the sarcolemmal membrane and leaving it vulnerable to injury during cycles of muscle contraction and relaxation. This results in an increased frequency of sarcolemma disruptions that can compromise the barrier function of the membrane and lead to death of the myocyte. Sarcolemmal membrane repair processes can potentially compensate for increased membrane disruptions in DMD myocytes. Previous studies demonstrated that TRIM72, a muscle-enriched tripartite motif (TRIM) family protein also known as mitsugumin 53 (MG53), is a component of the cell membrane repair machinery in striated muscle. To test the importance of membrane repair in striated muscle in compensating for the membrane fragility in DMD, we crossed TRIM72/MG53 knockout mice into the mdx mouse model of DMD. These double knockout (DKO) mice showed compromised sarcolemmal membrane integrity compared to mdx mice, as measured by immunoglobulin G staining and ex vivo muscle laser microscopy wounding assays. We also found a significant decrease in muscle ex vivo contractile function as compared to mdx mice at both 6 weeks and 1.5 years of age. As the DKO mice aged, they developed more extensive fibrosis in skeletal muscles compared to mdx. Our findings indicate that TRIM72/MG53-mediated membrane repair can partially compensate for the sarcolemmal fragility associated with DMD and that the loss of membrane repair results in increased pathology in the DKO mice.