Stress-strain relationship of individual hamstring muscles: A human cadaver study.

The incidence of hamstring muscle strain varies among muscles, suggesting that the mechanical stresses associated with elongation may differ among muscles. However, the passive mechanical properties of whole human muscles have rarely been directly measured and clarified. This study aimed to clarify the stress-strain relationship of the hamstring muscles using a soft-embalmed Thiel cadaver. The long heads of the biceps femoris (BFlh), semimembranosus (SM), and semitendinosus (ST) muscles were dissected from eight cadavers. The proximal and distal hamstring tendons were affixed to the mechanical testing machine. Slack length was defined as the muscle length at the initial loading point detected upon the application of a tensile load. Muscle length was measured using a tape measure, and the anatomical cross-sectional area (ACSA) of the muscle was measured at the proximal and distal sites using B-mode ultrasonography. In the loading protocol, the muscle was elongated from its slack length to a maximum of 8% strain at an average rate of 0.83 L0/s, and the amount of displacement and tensile load were measured for each muscle. Further, the strain (%, displacement/slack muscle length) and stress (kPa, tensile load/ACSA) were calculated to evaluate the mechanical properties. Two-way repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to compare stress changes with increasing muscle strain. A significant interaction between the muscle and strain factors was observed with respect to stress. Post-hoc tests revealed higher stresses in the BFlh and SM than in ST after 3% strain (P < 0.01). However, no significant differences were observed between the BFlh and SM groups. At 8% strain, the BFlh, SM, and ST exhibited stresses of 63.7 ± 12.1, 53.7 ± 23.2, and 21.0 ± 11.9 kPa, respectively. The results indicate that the stress changes associated with muscle strain differed among muscles. In particular, the stress applied to the three muscles at the same strain was found to be higher in the BFlh and SM. Thus, these findings suggest that increased mechanical stress during elongation may contribute to the frequent occurrence of muscle strain in BFlh and SM.

Morphological and mechanical characteristics of the intrinsic and extrinsic foot muscles under loading in individuals with flat feet.

BACKGROUND: The intrinsic and extrinsic foot softtissue structures that apply force and support the medial longitudinal arch (MLA) have been implicated in the development of flat feet. However, the relationship between the changes in MLA height under increasing load and the morphological and mechanical properties of individual intrinsic and extrinsic foot soft tissue structures is not fully understood. RESEARCH QUESTION: To examine the morphological and mechanical characteristics of the foot soft tissue structures in flat feet when subjected to loading. METHODS: This study consisted of two studies focusing on the extrinsic foot muscles (10 normal feet/11 flat feet) and intrinsic foot muscles (14 normal feet/13 flat feet). Images of the extrinsic and intrinsic foot muscles and plantar fascia (PF) under 10%, 50%, and 90% body weight conditions were obtained using ultrasound-based shear-wave elastography. RESULTS: The cross-sectional area (CSA) of the peroneus brevis was larger in the flat-foot group than in the normal-foot group under all loading conditions. The CSAs of the intrinsic foot muscles (abductor hallucis, flexor digitorum brevis, and quadratus plantae) and thickness of the PF in the flat-foot group decreased significantly with increasing load. As for mechanical characteristics, the stiffness of the flexor digitorum longus and abductor hallucis was higher in the flat-foot group than in the normal group under high loading conditions. In addition, flat feet with greater flexibility tended to exhibit a greater decrease in PF thickness and smaller increase in stiffness. SIGNIFICANCE: Excessive stretching of the intrinsic foot muscles and PF occurs in flat feet, and excessive contraction of the flexor digitorum longus may counteract the excessive lowering of the foot arch. Therefore, it is necessary to promote the contraction of the intrinsic foot musculature in feet with greater flexibility of the MLA during loading.

Characteristics of the static muscle stiffness of ankle plantar flexors in individuals with chronic ankle instability.

PURPOSE: Individuals with chronic ankle instability (CAI) have deficits in closed kinetic chain dorsiflexion that may perpetuate injury. Determining the characteristics of muscle stiffness in the plantar flexors of individuals with CAI may help in developing appropriate treatments. We aimed to highlight the characteristics of static muscle stiffness in ankle plantar flexor muscles during the passive dorsiflexion of the ankle joint in individuals with CAI. METHODS: A total of 30 patients were included in the study based on the International Ankle Consortium criteria. The patients were categorized evenly into healthy, coper, and CAI groups (i.e., 10 patients in each group). After measuring the dorsiflexion range of motion (non-weight-bearing/weight-bearing) of the ankle joint, the static muscle stiffness measurements of the medial gastrocnemius, lateral gastrocnemius, soleus, and peroneus longus were obtained. The measurements were performed during the knee joint's extension and 50° flexion and passive dorsiflexion between the range of 40° plantar flexion and 20° dorsiflexion. RESULTS: The dorsiflexion range of motion of the CAI group was significantly smaller than that of the healthy and coper groups in the weight-bearing position. No interaction was observed for muscle stiffness in both the knee flexion and extension positions, and no significant differences were identified among the three groups. The shear modulus of the soleus at 20° ankle dorsiflexion with knee flexion had a significant negative correlation with the weight-bearing range of motion of the ankle. CONCLUSION: The limitation in the weight-bearing dorsiflexion range of motion in CAI was largely due to factors other than the increased elasticity of the ankle plantar flexor muscles.

Quantifying the shear modulus of the adductor longus muscle during hip joint motion using shear wave elastography.

The present study aims to assess the effect of the hip flexion angle on the shear modulus of the adductor longus (AL) muscle associated with passive hip abduction and rotation. Sixteen men participated in the study. For the hip abduction task, the hip flexion angles used were - 20, 0, 20, 40, 60, and 80°, and the hip abduction angles were 0, 10, 20, 30, and 40°. For the hip rotation task, the hip flexion angles used were - 20, 0, 20, 40, 60, and 80°, hip abduction angles were 0 and 40°, and hip rotation angles were 20° internal rotation, 0° rotation, and 20° external rotation. The shear modulus at 20° extension was significantly higher than that at 80° flexion for the 10, 20, 30 and 40° hip abduction (i.e., P < 0.05). The shear modulus at 20° internal rotation and 20° extension was significantly higher than that at 0° rotation and 20° external rotation, regardless of the hip abduction angle (i.e., P < 0.05). The mechanical stress of the AL muscle associated with hip abduction was higher in the extended position. Furthermore, the mechanical stress could increase with internal rotation only at the hip-extended position.

Relationship between shear elastic modulus and passive muscle force in human hamstring muscles using a Thiel soft-embalmed cadaver.

PURPOSE: Assessing muscle flexibility and architecture is important for hamstring strain injury (HSI) prevention. We investigated the relationship between shear modulus and passive force in hamstring muscles at different sites and the effect of muscle architecture on the slope of the shear modulus-passive force using shear wave elastography (SWE). METHODS: The biceps femoris long head (BFlh), semitendinosus (ST), and semimembranosus (SM) muscles were dissected from nine Thiel-embalmed cadavers and fixed to a custom-made mechanical testing machine. Calibrated weights (0-1800 g) were applied gradually in 150-g increments. The shear modulus and anatomical cross-sectional area (ACSA) were measured at proximal, central, and distal points using SWE. The muscle mass and length were measured before the loading test. The shear modulus-passive load relationship of each tested muscle region was analyzed by fitting a least-squares regression line. The increase in shear modulus slope per unit load was calculated and compared between the muscles before and after normalization by the muscle mass, length, and ACSA. RESULTS: The shear modulus and passive force for all hamstring muscles in each region showed a statistically significant linear correlation. Furthermore, the increase in shear modulus slope was greater for BFlh and ST than for SM (P < 0.05), but after normalization by the muscle length and ACSA, there were no significant differences among the muscles. CONCLUSION: The local mechanical properties of individual hamstring muscles can be indirectly estimated using SWE, and the slope of increase in shear modulus reflects characteristics of the muscle architecture.

Effects of superficial tissue and intermuscular connections on rectus femoris muscle shear modulus heterogeneity.

INTRODUCTION: Intramuscular heterogeneity exists in the shear modulus of the rectus femoris (RF) muscle. However, the underlying heterogeneity mechanisms are not entirely understood. Previous research has reported that detachment of superficial tissues reduces the shear modulus by 50%. The aim of this study was to examine the effects of the skin, deep fascia, and intermuscular connections on the shear modulus of the RF at multiple sites. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Eleven donors were fixed using the Thiel method. Measurements were performed at 0°, 60°, and 120° knee flexion in a neutral hip position. Tissue processing was performed under four conditions: superficial tissue (CONT), skin off (SKIN), deep fascia detachment (FASC), and intermuscular connections detachment (ALL). The shear modulus at the proximal, central, and distal regions were measured using ultrasound shear wave elastography. The study was approved by the Sapporo Medical University Ethical Committee. RESULTS: Three-way ANOVA revealed no significant interaction between treatment, site, and angle (P = 0.156), treatment and angle (P = 0.067), or site and angle (P = 0.441). There was a significant effect of treatment (P < 0.001), site (P = 0.010), and angle (P < 0.001) and interaction between treatment and site (P < 0.001). The proximal shear modulus was greater than the central for CONT. There were no significant differences between the measurement sites for SKIN. The distal shear modulus was greater than the proximal for FASC. The distal shear modulus was also greater than the proximal and central for ALL. CONCLUSIONS: Intramuscular regional differences that influence superficial tissue and intermuscular connections of RF elasticity heterogeneity were observed.

Host-Selective Phytotoxins Incorporating the Epoxy-Triene-Decacarboxylate Moiety Function through the Hijacking of the Plant-Microbe Interaction System.

Host selective toxins (HSTs) are small molecule phytotoxins that control the pathogenicity of microbes in the host plant, but the mechanistic basis for their selectivity is unknown. We developed AcIle-EDA (Aclle-(+)-9,10-epoxy-8-hydroxy-9-methyldeca-trienoic acid) as a molecular probe of an HST, examined its mode of action in genetically modified Oryza sativa, and found it to trigger ROS production through NADPH-oxidase OsRBOHB, causing the emergence of pathogenic traits. This result strongly suggests that AcIle-EDA functions through the hijacking of the plant-microbe interaction system.

Effect of subcutaneous adipose tissue and muscle thicknesses on rectus femoris and vastus intermedius ultrasound echo intensities: a cadaver study.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of subcutaneous adipose tissue (SCAT) thickness and rectus femoris (RF) muscle thickness on RF and vastus intermedius (VI) echo intensity using human cadavers. METHODS: The echo intensity of the RF and VI was measured in 11 legs of seven cadavers under three conditions: intact condition (Model 1), SCAT removed (Model 2), and SCAT and RF removed (Model 3). RESULTS: RF echo intensity in Model 1 (69.2 ± 20.3 a.u.) was significantly lower than that in Model 2 (83.4 ± 15.9 a.u.) (P = 0.003). VI echo intensity in Models 1 to 3 showed similar results to RF echo intensity (P = 0.003 to 0.001). Regarding the relationship between VI echo intensity and VI muscle thickness, the regression lines shifted upward in a parallel fashion in the order Model 1, Model 2, and Model 3. Multiple regression analysis revealed that the variation in RF echo intensity was explained by RF muscle thickness (P = 0.036) and SCAT thickness (P = 0.001), while the variation in VI echo intensity was explained by RF muscle thickness (P = 0.035). CONCLUSION: These results suggest that SCAT thickness and RF muscle thickness induce lower RF echo intensity, while RF muscle thickness induces lower VI echo intensity.

Effect of chest mobilization on intercostal muscle stiffness.

This study examined the effect of chest mobilization on intercostal (IC) muscle stiffness using the IC muscle shear modulus. Sixteen healthy young men participated on two days with a minimum of 24 h between the stretching and control conditions (SC and CC). The tasks were resting breathing and deep breathing. The IC muscle shear modulus and muscle activity and rib cage circumference were measured before and after each condition. In the SC, IC stretching was performed for 1 min x 5 sets. In the CC, resting breathing, in a sitting position, was performed for 5 min. In the SC, the IC muscle shear modulus decreased significantly (p < 0.05) at maximum inspiration in the deep breathing task, but there was no significant difference in the CC pre- and post-intervention. The results suggest that IC muscle stretching decreases IC muscle stiffness and improves muscle flexibility and that the IC muscle shear modulus may measure the effectiveness of chest mobilization.

Adductor longus: An anatomical study to better understand groin pain.

We investigated the shear modulus-passive force relationship in the hip adductor longus (AL) muscles of human cadavers and explored the effect of muscle architecture on the elastic properties of the AL muscle using shear wave elastography (SWE). Nine AL muscles were harvested from a soft, embalmed cadaver. The AL muscles were affixed to a custom-built device comprising two clamps, a pulley, and a cable to provide passive loads, which were increased from 0 to 600 g in 60-g increments. The shear modulus of the AL muscle was measured in the proximal (Pro), middle (Mid), and distal (Dis) regions. The masses and anatomical cross-sectional areas (ACSAs) of the AL muscles were measured. The shear modulus-passive load relationship of each tested muscle region was analyzed by fitting a least-squares regression line. Moreover, the rate of increase in the shear modulus per unit load (s) was calculated. The shear modulus and passive force were linearly correlated for all AL muscles in each region (p < 0.01). The mean coefficients of determination (R2 ) for Pro, Mid, and Dis were 0.989, 0.986, and 0.982, respectively. The rate of increase in the shear modulus per unit load significantly correlated with the reciprocal of the muscle mass (r = 0.77, p = 0.02) and ACSA (r = 0.43, p = 0.03). Shear wave elastography can be used as an indirect measure of passive force in any region of the AL muscle. Additionally, the rate of increase in the shear modulus per unit load could be associated with muscle architectural parameters.

Posterior shoulder capsule of the dominant arm is stiffer in baseball players than that in nonthrowing population.

BACKGROUND: Posterior shoulder capsule tightness is one of the factors for shoulder injuries in overhead athletes. Recent studies have shown the posterior capsule of the dominant arm to be stiffer than that of the nondominant arm in baseball players. However, whether posterior capsule tightness in the dominant arm is exclusive to overhead athletes remains unknown. This study aimed to investigate whether the posterior shoulder capsule of the dominant arm in baseball players is stiffer than that in nonthrowing population. METHODS: Fifteen male collegiate asymptomatic baseball players (baseball-player group) and fifteen male college students who did not partake in overhead sports (nonthrowing group) participated in this study. We measured the shear moduli of the middle and inferior posterior capsules, superior infraspinatus, inferior infraspinatus, teres minor, and posterior deltoid in the dominant arm by ultrasound shear wave elastography. We compared shear moduli between the two groups using an independent samples t-test and Mann-Whitney test. In addition, we investigated the correlation between the range of glenohumeral internal rotation and each shear modulus in each group using the Pearson correlation coefficient. RESULTS: The shear moduli in the baseball-player group were significantly higher than those in the nonthrowing group in both the middle posterior capsule (baseball-player group: 36.1 ± 5.6 kPa vs. nonthrowing group: 29.0 ± 8.6 kPa; P = .018) and inferior posterior capsule (37.1 ± 9.6 kPa vs. 27.9 ± 6.8 kPa; P = .002). However, no difference in the shear moduli of individual muscle groups was identified. The glenohumeral internal rotation range exhibited a statistically significant negative correlation with the shear modulus of the inferior posterior capsule in the baseball-player group (Pearson correlation coefficient = -0.586, P = .022). CONCLUSION: Our findings suggest that the posterior shoulder capsule of the dominant arm in baseball players is stiffer than that in nonthrowing population.

Time-course changes in active stiffness of the supraspinatus muscle after arthroscopic rotator cuff repair.

PURPOSE: This study aimed to investigate the time-course changes in the active stiffness of the supraspinatus muscle after arthroscopic rotator cuff repair. METHODS: Eight male patients (mean age 61.5 ± 9.4 years) who underwent arthroscopic rotator cuff repair for small to medium tears were recruited for this study. Movement tasks included 30° shoulder isometric abduction and maximal voluntary isometric contraction of shoulder abduction in the scapular plane. The stiffness of the supraspinatus (anterior superficial, anterior deep, posterior superficial, and posterior deep regions), upper trapezius, and middle deltoid muscles in bilateral shoulders was recorded using ultrasound shear wave elastography. For each subject, the measurement was performed preoperatively and 3, 6, and 12 months postoperatively. RESULTS: The stiffness of the affected anterior superficial region of the supraspinatus muscle 12 months postoperatively was significantly higher than that measured preoperatively and 3 months postoperatively (p < 0.05); it was significantly higher at 6 months postoperatively than at 3 months postoperatively (p < 0.05). Further, the maximal voluntary isometric contraction had significantly improved 12 months postoperatively compared to that measured preoperatively and 3 months postoperatively (p < 0.05). The stiffness of the affected upper trapezius and middle deltoid muscles 12 months postoperatively was significantly lower than that preoperatively (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: The maximal voluntary isometric contraction 12 months postoperatively possibly increased because of improvement in the active stiffness of the anterior superficial region. Active stiffness of the anterior superficial region may improve 6 months rather than 3 months postoperatively because of the different stages of muscle force, structural repair tendon strength, and remodeling.

Effects of shoulder abduction on the stiffness of supraspinatus muscle regions in rotator cuff tear.

This study aimed to compare the effect of the load of the upper limb on the stiffness of supraspinatus muscle regions during isometric shoulder abduction in the scapular plane in healthy individuals and patients with a rotator cuff tear. Thirteen male patients were scheduled for arthroscopic rotator cuff repair, and 13 healthy male individuals were recruited. The movement task involved 30° isometric shoulder abduction in the scapular plane. The tasks included passive abduction, abduction with half-weight of the upper limb (1/2-weight), and full weight of the upper limb (full-weight). The stiffness of the supraspinatus muscle (anterior superficial, anterior deep, posterior superficial, and posterior deep regions) was recorded using ultrasound shear-wave elastography. The stiffness of the anterior superficial region on the affected side was significantly lower than that on the control side for the 1/2-weight and full-weight tasks. The stiffness of the anterior deep, posterior superficial, and posterior deep regions was not affected. This is the first study that investigated the mechanical effects of different loads on different supraspinatus muscle regions in rotator cuff tear patients. Our results indicate that the anterior superficial region in rotator cuff tear patients was mainly responsible for reduced active stiffness. This might be because this region contributes to force exertion and exhibits atrophy in rotator cuff tears. Hence, the anterior superficial region could be a focal point of quantitative dysfunction evaluation of the supraspinatus muscle in the case of a rotator cuff tear.

Sarcomere length of the vastus intermedius with the knee joint angle change.

The force-length relation of the skeletal muscles is an important factor influencing the joint torque at a given joint angle. We aimed to clarify the relationship between the resting sarcomere length and knee joint angle in the vastus intermedius (VI) and to compare it with that of the vastus lateralis (VL). The left and right legs were fixed at knee joint angles of 0° and 90°, respectively, in seven cadavers (age at the time of death: 70-91 years). Muscle tissues were dissected by necropsy of the VL and the VI, and electron microscopy images were obtained to calculate the sarcomere length. At knee joint angles of 0° and 90°, the VL sarcomere length was 2.28 ± 0.49 µm and 2.30 ± 0.48 µm, respectively, and the VI sarcomere length was 2.19 ± 0.35 µm and 2.46 ± 0.53 µm, respectively, with a significant difference between the two (p = 0.028). The magnitude of sarcomere length changes with knee joint angle changes was significantly greater for the VI (0.27 ± 0.20 µm) than for the VL (0.02 ± 0.09 µm) (p = 0.009). Thus, knee joint angle changes may affect the passive and active tension produced by the VI more than those produced by the VL.

Relationship between shear elastic modulus and passive force of the human rectus femoris at multiple sites: a Thiel soft-embalmed cadaver study.

PURPOSE: Estimation of muscle passive force from elasticity using shear wave elastography (SWE) has been reported. However, the relationship between the elasticity and passive force of human muscles has not been elucidated. This study investigated the elastic modulus-passive force relationship in human skeletal muscles at multiple sites. METHODS: Four rectus femoris (RF) muscles were dissected from a human Thiel-embalmed cadaver. Calibration weights (0-600 g in 60-g increments) were applied to the distal tendon via a pulley system, and the shear elastic modulus as an index of elasticity was measured using SWE. The shear elastic modulus of the RF was measured at the proximal, central, and distal portions. RESULTS: The results demonstrated that the relationships between the elasticity in the longitudinal direction of the muscle and the passive force were nearly linear for all tested sites, with coefficients of determination ranging from 0.813 to 0.993. CONCLUSION: Shear wave elastography may be used as an indirect method to measure the changing passive force at any site within human muscles.

Intramuscular differences in shear modulus of the rectus femoris muscle during passive knee flexion.

PURPOSE: This study aimed to determine (1) intramuscular regional differences in the changes in the shear modulus of the rectus femoris (RF) muscle during passive knee flexion and (2) the relationship between shear modulus and passive knee extension torque. METHOD: The shear modulus maps as an index of muscle stiffness and the passive torque were obtained at seven regions during passive knee flexion at 2°/s within a knee joint range of motion of 0°-130° in 16 healthy males. RESULTS: The shear modulus of RF increased with the knee angle of flexion. The shear modulus of each longitudinal region was greater in the order of proximal, central, and distal region (p < 0.05). The relationship between the shear modulus and passive torque was highly fitted for all 16 subjects (p < 0.05). The mean coefficient of determination (R2) at second-order polynomial model per subject was 0.96 (± 0.03; range 0.61-0.99), and whole group was 0.58 (± 0.03; range 0.54-0.64) in all regions. CONCLUSIONS: The passive stiffness of RF was higher in the proximal region than in the other regions during passive knee flexion. Furthermore, the shear modulus-passive torque was related regardless of the measurement region within a muscle, and the results suggest that the passive knee extension torque reflects passive muscle stiffness of the RF.

Effective stretching positions for the posterior shoulder capsule as determined by shear wave elastography.

BACKGROUND: Stretching is often used to prevent and treat posterior shoulder capsule tightness; however, the most effective stretching positions are not clearly defined. The purpose of this study was to identify the stretching positions that specifically applied the greatest passive tension on the posterior shoulder capsule by evaluating the elastic characteristics of posterior capsules and muscles in various stretching positions using ultrasound shear wave elastography (SWE). METHODS: We evaluated 9 fresh-frozen shoulders (mean age 86.6 ± 7.7 years) without osteoarthritis or rotator cuff tears. All posterior shoulder tissues were preserved intact. Shear moduli of the middle and inferior posterior shoulder capsules and the posterior shoulder muscles were evaluated using SWE. We obtained shear modulus measurements in 9 stretching positions using a combination of glenohumeral elevation planes and angles (frontal, sagittal, scapular; -30°, 0°, 30°, 60°, respectively). A 4-Nm torque for shoulder internal rotation or horizontal adduction was applied in each position. We also measured shear moduli in the resting position (0° elevation with neutral shoulder internal/external rotation). We compared the shear moduli of all stretching and resting positions using 1-way repeated measures analysis of variance (P < .05). In addition, we compared the shear modulus in 2 positions (ie, resting and each stretching) among tissues (ie, capsules and muscles) with repeated measures using 2-way analysis of variance (P < .05). RESULTS: Shear modulus values for the middle posterior capsules in "internal rotation at 30° in scapular plane elevation" (28.7 ± 14.3 kPa, P = .01) and in "horizontal adduction at 60° of elevation" (31.1 ± 13.1 kPa, P < .001) were significantly higher than that of the resting position (11.0 ± 7.3 kPa). The shear modulus value for the inferior posterior capsule in "internal rotation at 30° of flexion" was significantly higher than that of the resting position (39.0 ± 17.3 vs. 15.4 ± 13.9 kPa, respectively; P = .004). Additionally, the shear modulus values for the posterior capsules in "internal rotation at 30° in scapular plane elevation and flexion" were significantly higher than that of the posterior shoulder muscles. CONCLUSION: Effective middle posterior shoulder capsule stretching positions were shoulder "internal rotation at 30° of scapular plane elevation" and "horizontal adduction at 60° of elevation." Shoulder "internal rotation at 30° of flexion" was the most effective position for the inferior posterior shoulder capsule. Stretching in these positions could relieve posterior shoulder capsule tightness and contribute to the prevention and treatment of throwing injuries of the shoulder.

Effect of hip flexion angle on stiffness of the adductor longus muscle during isometric hip flexion.

This study examined the effect of hip flexion angle on the stiffness of the adductor longus (AL) muscle during isometric hip flexion. Seventeen men were recruited. Ten participants performed submaximal voluntary contraction at 0%, 25%, 50%, and 75% of maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) during isometric hip flexion after performing MVC at 0°, 40°, and 80° of hip flexion. Seven participants performed submaximal voluntary tasks during isometric hip extension in addition to hip flexion task. The shear modulus of the AL muscle was used as the index of muscle stiffness, and was measured using ultrasound shear-wave elastography during the tasks at each contraction intensity for each hip flexion angle. During hip flexion, the shear modulus of the AL muscle was higher at 0° than at 40° and 80° of hip flexion at each contraction intensity (p < 0.016). Conversely, a significant effect was not found among hip flexion angle during hip extension at 75% of MVC (p = 0.867). These results suggest that mechanical stress of the AL muscle may be higher at 0° of hip flexion during isometric hip flexion.

Relationship between shear modulus and passive tension of the posterior shoulder capsule using ultrasound shear wave elastography: A cadaveric study.

Although shear wave elastography (SWE) has been used to indirectly measure passive tension in muscle tissues, it is unknown whether SWE can adequately evaluate passive tension in capsule tissues. This study investigated the relationship between the shear modulus and passive tension in the posterior shoulder capsule using SWE. Ten posterior middle and ten posterior inferior shoulder capsules were dissected from ten fresh-frozen cadavers; humeral head-capsule-glenoid specimens were created from each capsule. The humeral head and glenoid were immobilized with clamps in a custom-built device. Loads (0-400 g, in 25-g increments) were applied to each capsule via a pulley system; elasticity was simultaneously measured using SWE. The elasticity-load relationship of each tested capsule was analyzed by fitting a least-squares regression line to the data. Elasticity change due to creep or hysteresis effects was evaluated by comparing the elastic modulus for a 100-g load during and after the stepwise application of the loads. The observed relationship between the shear modulus and passive capsule tension was highly linear for all twenty tested capsules (p < 0.01). The mean coefficient of determination was 0.882 ±â€¯0.075 and 0.901 ±â€¯0.050 for the posterior middle and posterior inferior capsules, respectively. There was no difference in the shear modulus between the two 100-g load assessments for both the posterior middle (p = 0.205) and posterior inferior capsules (p = 0.161). Thus, SWE is a valid and useful method for indirectly evaluating the change in the passive tension under loading in specific posterior shoulder capsule.