The Ethiopian National Immunization Technical Advisory Group (E-NITAG): Establishment, Achievements and the Future.

The National Immunization Program (NIP) was introduced in Ethiopia in 1980. The NIP has expanded the number of vaccines from six to more than 14 in 2023. However, decisions on new vaccine introduction and other vaccine-related matters were not systematically deliberated nationally. Thus, the need to establish a national body to deliberate on vaccine and vaccination matters, in addition to the global immunization advisory groups, has been emphasized in the last decade. This article presents the establishment and achievements of the Ethiopian NITAG. The E-NITAG was established in 2016 and maintained its active role in providing recommendations for new vaccine introduction and improving the delivery of routine vaccines. The external assessment indicated the E-NITAG was highly functional and played a critical role in enhancing the vaccination practice in Ethiopia, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic. The absence of a dedicated secretariat staff was the major bottleneck to expanding the role of the E-NITAG beyond responding to MOH requests. The E-NITAG must be strengthened by establishing a secretariat that can eventually grow as an independent institution to address complex vaccine-related issues the NIP needs to address.

Safety and efficacy of paromomycin/miltefosine/liposomal amphotericin B combinations for the treatment of post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis in Sudan: A phase II, open label, randomized, parallel arm study.

BACKGROUND: Treatment for post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis (PKDL) in Sudan is currently recommended only for patients with persistent or severe disease, mainly because of the limitations of current therapies, namely toxicity and long hospitalization. We assessed the safety and efficacy of miltefosine combined with paromomycin and liposomal amphotericin B (LAmB) for the treatment of PKDL in Sudan. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: An open-label, phase II, randomized, parallel-arm, non-comparative trial was conducted in patients with persistent (stable or progressive disease for ≥ 6 months) or grade 3 PKDL, aged 6 to ≤ 60 years in Sudan. The median age was 9.0 years (IQR 7.0-10.0y) and 87% of patients were ≤12 years old. Patients were randomly assigned to either daily intra-muscular paromomycin (20mg/kg, 14 days) plus oral miltefosine (allometric dose, 42 days)-PM/MF-or LAmB (total dose of 20mg/kg, administered in four injections in week one) and oral miltefosine (allometric dose, 28 days)-LAmB/MF. The primary endpoint was a definitive cure at 12 months after treatment onset, defined as clinical cure (100% lesion resolution) and no additional PKDL treatment between end of therapy and 12-month follow-up assessment. 104/110 patients completed the trial. Definitive cure at 12 months was achieved in 54/55 (98.2%, 95% CI 90.3-100) and 44/55 (80.0%, 95% CI 70.2-91.9) of patients in the PM/MF and AmB/MF arms, respectively, in the mITT set (all randomized patients receiving at least one dose of treatment; in case of error of treatment allocation, the actual treatment received was used in the analysis). No SAEs or deaths were reported, and most AEs were mild or moderate. At least one adverse drug reaction (ADR) was reported in 13/55 (23.6%) patients in PM/MF arm and 28/55 (50.9%) in LAmB/MF arm, the most frequent being miltefosine-related vomiting and nausea, and LAmB-related hypokalaemia; no ocular or auditory ADRs were reported. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: The PM/MF regimen requires shorter hospitalization than the currently recommended 60-90-day treatment, and is safe and highly efficacious, even for patients with moderate and severe PKDL. It can be administered at primary health care facilities, with LAmB/MF as a good alternative. For future VL elimination, we need new, safe oral therapies for all patients with PKDL. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03399955, https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT03399955 ClinicalTrials.gov ClinicalTrials.gov.

A non-inferiority trial comparing two killed, whole cell, oral cholera vaccines (Cholvax vs. Shanchol) in Dhaka, Bangladesh.

Bangladesh remains cholera endemic with biannual seasonal peaks causing epidemics. At least 300,000 severe cases and over 4,500 deaths occur each year. The available oral cholera vaccineshave not yet been adopted for cholera control in Bangladesh due to insufficient number of doses available for endemic control. With a public private partnership, icddr,b initiated a collaboration between vaccine manufacturers in Bangladesh and abroad. A locally manufactured Oral Cholera Vaccine (OCV) named Cholvax became available for testing in Bangladesh. We evaluated the safety and immunogenicity of this locally produced Cholvax (Incepta Vaccine Ltd) inexpensive OCV comparatively to Shanchol (Shantha Biotechnics-Sanofi Pasteur) which is licensed in several countries. We conducted a randomized non-inferiority clinical trial of bivalent, killed oral whole-cell cholera vaccine Cholvax vs. Shanchol in the cholera-endemic area of Mirpur, Dhaka, among three different age cohorts (1-5, 6-17 and 18-45 years) between April 2016 and April 2017. Two vaccine doses were given at 14 days apart to 2,052 healthy participants. No vaccine-related serious adverse events were reported. There were no significant differences in the frequency of solicited (7.31% vs. 6.73%) and unsolicited (1.46% vs. 1.07%) adverse events reported between the Cholvax and Shanchol groups. Vibriocidal antibody responses among the overall population for O1 Ogawa (81% vs. 77%) and O1 Inaba (83% vs. 84%) serotypes showed that Cholvax was non-inferior to Shanchol, with the non-inferiority margin of -10%. For O1 Inaba, GMT was 462.60 (Test group), 450.84 (Comparator group) with GMR 1.02(95% CI: 0.92, 1.13). For O1 Ogawa, GMT was 419.64 (Test group), 387.22 (Comparator group) with GMR 1.12 (95% CI: 1.02, 1.23). Cholvax was safe and non-inferior to Shanchol in terms of immunogenicity in the different age groups. These results support public use of Cholvax to contribute for reduction of the cholera burden in Bangladesh. ClinicalTrials.gov number: NCT027425581.

Safety and immunogenicity of Vi-DT conjugate vaccine among 6-23-month-old children: Phase II, randomized, dose-scheduling, observer-blind Study.

BACKGROUND: Typhoid causes significant mortality among young children in resource-limited settings. Conjugate typhoid vaccines could significantly reduce typhoid-related child deaths, but only one WHO-prequalified typhoid conjugate vaccine exists for young children. To address this gap, we investigated the safety, immunogenicity and dose-scheduling of Vi-DT typhoid conjugate vaccine among children aged 6-23 months. METHODS: In this single center, observer blind, phase II trial, participants were randomly assigned (2:2:1) to receive one or two doses of Vi-DT or comparator vaccine. Anti-Vi IgG titer and geometric mean titers (GMT) were determined at 0, 4, 24 and 28 weeks. Data were analyzed using per-protocol and immunogenicity (a subset of intention-to-treat analysis) sets. The trial is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT03527355). FINDINGS: Between April and July 2018, 285 children were randomized; 114 received one or two doses of Vi-DT while 57 received comparator. 277 completed the study follow-up per protocol; 112 and 110 from single- and two-dose Vi-DT schedules, respectively and 55 from the placebo group were included in the per protocol analysis. Safety profile is satisfactory. Thirteen serious adverse events were reported during the 28-week follow-up, none of which were related to Vi-DT. The seroconversion rate four weeks after the first dose was 100% (95% CI 98·3-100) in Vi-DT recipients and 7·0% (95% CI 2·8-16·7) in comparator recipients (p<0·0001). Similarly, the seroconversion rate 4 weeks after the second dose was 98·2% (95% CI 93· 6-99·5) and 21·8% (95% CI 13·0-34·4) among Vi-DT and comparator groups, respectively (p<0·0001). Anti-Vi IgG GMT was significantly higher in Vi-DT than in control group at all post-vaccination visits (p<0·0001). INTERPRETATION: Both single and two doses of Vi-DT vaccine are safe, well tolerated, and immunogenic for infants and toddlers in a moderately endemic setting.

Immunogenicity, safety and reactogenicity of a Phase II trial of Vi-DT typhoid conjugate vaccine in healthy Filipino infants and toddlers: A preliminary report.

BACKGROUND: Typhoid fever remains an important public health problem in developing countries and is endemic in many parts of Asia and Africa where the incidence of disease typically peaks in school-aged children. Age restrictions and other limitations of existing oral live-attenuated typhoid and parenteral Vi polysaccharide vaccines have triggered the development of Vi conjugate vaccines with improved immunological properties, use in younger age range, and longer durability of protection. We present the safety, reactogenicity, and immunogenicity data from a Phase II study after a single dose of Vi polysaccharide conjugated to diphtheria toxoid (Vi-DT) conducted in 6-23-month old Filipino children. METHODS: This is a randomized, observer-blinded Phase II study to assess the immunogenicity, safety and reactogenicity of Vi-DT compared to placebo, conducted in Muntinlupa City, The Philippines. Participants aged 6-23 months were enrolled and randomized to Vi-DT (25 µg) or placebo (0.9% sodium chloride) and evaluated for immunogenicity and overall safety 28 days post vaccination. RESULTS: A total of 285 participants were enrolled and age-stratified: 6 to < 9 months, 9-12 months, and 13-23 months. Seventy-six (76) participants received Vi-DT and 19 received placebo per each strata. All participants seroconverted after a single dose of Vi-DT versus 7% of placebo recipients. Anti-Vi IgG GMT was 444.38 [95% CI (400.28; 493.34)] after a single dose of Vi-DT; there was no change in GMT after placebo administration, 0.41 [95% CI (0.33; 0.51), p < 0.0001]. A similar pattern of immunogenicity was reported across all age strata. The vaccine reported to be safe and well tolerated. CONCLUSIONS: Vi-DT vaccine was immunogenic, safe, and well tolerated in children aged 6-23 months. ClinicalTrials.gov registration number: NCT03527355.

Safety and immunogenicity of a Vi-DT typhoid conjugate vaccine: Phase I trial in Healthy Filipino adults and children.

BACKGROUND: Typhoid fever remains a major public health problem in low- and middle-income countries where children aged 2-14 years bear the greatest burden. Vi polysaccharide is poorly immunogenic in children <2 years of age, and protection in adults is modest. The limitations of Vi polysaccharide vaccines can be overcome by conjugation of the Vi to a carrier protein. A typhoid conjugate vaccine composed of Vi polysaccharide conjugated to diphtheria toxoid (Vi-DT) has been developed. The Phase I study results are presented here. METHODS: This was a randomized, observer-blinded Phase I study to assess the safety and immunogenicity of Vi-DT compared to Vi polysaccharide vaccine, conducted in Manila, Philippines. Participants enrolled in an age de-escalation manner (18-45, 6-17 and 2-5 years) were randomized between Test (Vi-DT, 25 µg) administered at 0 and 4 weeks and Comparator (Vi polysaccharide, Typhim Vi® and Vaxigrip®, Sanofi Pasteur) vaccines. RESULTS: A total of 144 participants were enrolled (48 by age strata, 24 in Test and Comparator groups each). No serious adverse event was reported in either group. Solicited and unsolicited adverse events were mild or moderate in both groups with the exception of a 4-year old girl in Test group with grade 3 fever which resolved without sequelae. All participants in Test group seroconverted after first and second doses of Vi-DT while the proportions in the Comparator group were 97.1% and 97.2%, after first dose of Typhim Vi® and second dose of Vaxigrip®, respectively. Vi-DT showed 4-fold higher Geometric Mean Titers (GMT) compared to Typhim Vi® (adjusted for age strata, p < 0.001). No further increase of GMT was detected after the second dose of Vi-DT. Anti-DT IgG seroresponse rates were 81.2% and 84.5% post first and second Vi-DT doses, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Vi-DT vaccine was safe, well-tolerated and immunogenic in participants aged 2-45 years. ClinicalTrials.gov registration number: NCT02645032.

Feasibility and costs of a targeted cholera vaccination campaign in Ethiopia.

Shanchol™, a WHO-prequalified oral cholera vaccine (OCV), has been used to control endemic cholera in Asia, as well as in emergencies and outbreaks elsewhere. The vaccine has not been used by public health systems in cholera-endemic settings of Africa although several outbreak response campaigns have been conducted. Here we present experiences from a mass vaccination campaign in a cholera-endemic setting of Ethiopia in which Shanchol™ was introduced through the public health system. The vaccination site was selected based on cholera cases reported in previous years. Social mobilization involved sensitization of community leaders, household visits, and mass distribution of banners, posters and leaflets. The vaccination was implemented after careful microplanning of logistics and cold chain, manpower, transportation, vaccine supply and supervision and monitoring of adverse events. Vaccine administration was recorded on individual vaccination cards. Vaccine delivery costs were collected and analyzed after vaccination. As there was no experience with Shanchol™ in Ethiopia, a bridging trial was conducted to demonstrate safety and immunogenicity of the vaccine in the local population prior to the mass vaccination. Oral cholera vaccination was conducted in two rounds of four days each in February 2015 and March 2015 in 10 selected villages of Shashemenae rural district of Ethiopia. A total of 62,161 people targeted. 47,137 people (76%) received the first dose, and 40,707 (65%) received two doses. The financial cost of the vaccination campaign was estimated at US $2·60 per dose or US $5·64 per fully immunized person. The cost of vaccine delivery excluding vaccine procurement was $0·68 per dose or $1·48 per fully immunized person. The study demonstrates that mass cholera vaccination administered through the public health system in Ethiopia is feasible, can be implemented through the existing health system at an affordable cost, and the vaccine is acceptable to the community. The lessons from this study are useful for deploying OCV in other African endemic settings through the public health system and may guide future immunization policy decisions.

Comparison of immune responses to a killed bivalent whole cell oral cholera vaccine between endemic and less endemic settings.

Studies on safety, immunogenicity and efficacy of the killed, bivalent whole cell oral cholera vaccine (Shanchol) have been conducted in historically endemic settings of Asia. Recent cholera vaccination campaigns in Haiti and Guinea have also demonstrated favourable immunogenicity and effectiveness in nonendemic outbreak settings. We performed a secondary analysis, comparing immune responses of Shanchol from two randomised controlled trials performed in an endemic and a less endemic area (Addis Ababa) during a nonoutbreak setting. While Shanchol may offer some degree of immediate protection in primed populations living in cholera endemic areas, as well as being highly immunogenic in less endemic settings, understanding the characteristics of immune responses in each of these areas is vital in determining ideal dosing strategies that offer the greatest public health impact to populations from areas with varying degrees of cholera endemicity.

A Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trial Evaluating Safety and Immunogenicity of the Killed, Bivalent, Whole-Cell Oral Cholera Vaccine in Ethiopia.

Killed whole-cell oral cholera vaccine (OCV) has been a key component of a comprehensive package including water and sanitation measures for recent cholera epidemics. The vaccine, given in a two-dose regimen, has been evaluated in a large number of human volunteers in India, Vietnam, and Bangladesh, where it has demonstrated safety, immunogenicity, and clinical efficacy. We conducted a double-blind randomized placebo-controlled trial in Ethiopia, where we evaluated the safety and immunogenicity of the vaccine in 216 healthy adults and children. OCV was found to be safe and elicited a robust immunological response against Vibrio cholerae O1, with 81% adults and 77% children demonstrating seroconversion 14 days after the second dose of vaccine. This is the first study to evaluate safety and immunogenicity of the vaccine in a population outside Asia using a placebo-controlled, double-blind, randomized study design.

Goltz syndrome (focal dermal hypoplasia) with unilateral ocular, cutaneous and skeletal features: case report.

BACKGROUND: Goltz syndrome or focal dermal hypoplasia (FDH) is an uncommon multisystem disorder. Herein, we report a typical case of FDH with unilateral ocular, cutaneous and skeletal features. CASE PRESENTATION: a 4-year-old girl presented with microphthalmos and iris coloboma of the left eye, facial asymmetry, and a low-set protruding ear. Cutaneous changes included hypopigmented atrophic macules on the left side of the face, chest, abdomen and limbs. Characteristic lobster claw deformity of left hand and oligodactyly and syndactyly of left foot were present. CONCLUSIONS: FDH usually affects both sides of the body. This case represents the unusual unilateral manifestation of the syndrome.