Distinct fecal microbial signatures are linked to sex and chronic immune activation in pediatric HIV infection.

Introduction: Our understanding of HIV-associated gut microbial dysbiosis in children perinatally-infected with HIV (CLWH) lags behind that of adults living with HIV. Childhood represents a critical window for the gut microbiota. Any disturbances, including prolonged exposure to HIV, antiretroviral drugs, and antibiotics are likely to have a significant impact on long-term health, resulting in a less resilient gut microbiome. The objective of our study was to characterize the gut microbiota in CLWH, and compare it with HIV-unexposed and -uninfected children. Methods: We enrolled 31 children aged 3 to 15 years; 15 were CLWH and 16 were HUU. We assessed dietary patterns and quality; quantified soluble and cellular markers of HIV disease progression by flow cytometry, enzyme-linked immunosorbent and multiplex-bead assays, and profiled the gut microbiota by 16S rRNA sequencing. We explored relationships between the gut microbiota, antibiotic exposure, dietary habits, soluble and cellular markers and host metadata. Results: Children had a Western-type diet, their median health eating index score was 67.06 (interquartile range 58.76-74.66). We found no discernable impact of HIV on the gut microbiota. Alpha diversity metrics did not differ between CLWH and HUU. Sex impacted the gut microbiota (R-squared= 0.052, PERMANOVA p=0.024). Male children had higher microbial richness compared with female children. Two taxa were found to discriminate female from male children independently from HIV status: Firmicutes for males, and Bacteroides for females. Markers of HIV disease progression were comparable between CLWH and HUU, except for the frequency of exhausted CD4+ T cells (PD-1+) which was increased in CLWH (p=0.0024 after adjusting for confounders). Both the frequency of exhausted CD4+ and activated CD4+ T cells (CD38+ HLADR+) correlated positively with the relative abundance of Proteobacteria (rho=0.568. false discovery rate (FDR)-adjusted p= 0.029, and rho=0.62, FDR-adjusted p=0.0126, respectively). Conclusion: The gut microbiota of CLWH appears similar to that of HUU, and most markers of HIV disease progression are normalized with long-term ART, suggesting a beneficial effect of the latter on the gut microbial ecology. The relationship between exhausted and activated CD4+ T cells and Proteobacteria suggests a connection between the gut microbiome, and premature aging in CLWH.

Antimicrobial resistance and antibiotic consumption in a third level pediatric hospital in Mexico City.

INTRODUCTION: The increasing resistance to antibiotics is a public health problem and an imminent therapeutic challenge in hospitals. In this report we aimed to analyze the relationship between antimicrobial resistance and antibiotic consumption in a third-level pediatric hospital. METHODOLOGY: A cross-sectional analysis was conducted using the information from the microbiology and pharmacy databases of the Pediatric Hospital "Doctor Silvestre Frenk Freund", during the period 2015-2018. Prevalence of antimicrobial resistance by microorganisms and dispensed grams of selected antibiotics were calculated annually. Antibiotic resistance trend over the time was evaluated using the Chi-square trends test and to assess the correlation between the dispensed grams of antibiotics with their antimicrobial resistance prevalence, we calculated the Pearson's coefficient (r). RESULTS: A total of 4,327 isolated bacterial samples were analyzed (56.5% Gram-positive and 44.5% Gram-negative). Most frequently isolated microorganisms were coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS), E. coli, K. pneumoniae, P. aeruginosa and S. aureus. We found a significant increase in resistance to clindamycin and oxacillin for CoNS and significant decrease in nitrofurantoin and amikacin resistance for E. coli and K. pneumoniae. We observed a strong positive and statistically significant correlation between amikacin resistance prevalence and amikacin dispensed grams for P. aeruginosa (r = 0.95, p = 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: The antibiotic resistance profile showed by our study highlights the need of an appropriate antibiotic control use in the Hospital setting.

An eight-year multicenter study on short-term peripheral intravenous catheter-related bloodstream infection rates in 100 intensive care units of 9 countries in Latin America: Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Mexico, Panama, and Venezuela. Findings of the International Nosocomial Infection Control Consortium (INICC).

BACKGROUND: Data on short-term peripheral intravenous catheter-related bloodstream infections per 1,000 peripheral venous catheter days (PIVCR BSIs per 1,000 PVC days) rates from Latin America are not available, so they have not been thoroughly studied. METHODS: International Nosocomial Infection Control Consortium (INICC) members conducted a prospective, surveillance study on PIVCR BSIs from January 2010 to March 2018 in 100 intensive care units (ICUs) among 41 hospitals, in 26 cities of 9 countries in Latin America (Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominican-Republic, Ecuador, Mexico, Panama, and Venezuela). The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) National Health Safety Network (NHSN) definitions were applied, and INICC methodology and INICC Surveillance Online System software were used. RESULTS: In total, 10,120 ICU patients were followed for 40,078 bed days and 38,262 PVC days. In addition, 79 PIVCR BSIs were identified, with a rate of 2.06 per 1,000 PVC days (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.635-2.257). The average length of stay (ALOS) of patients without a PIVCR BSI was 3.95 days, and the ALOS was 5.29 days for patients with a PIVCR BSI. The crude extra ALOS was 1.34 days (RR, 1.33; 95% CI, 1.0975-1.6351; P = .040).The mortality rate in patients without PIVCR BSI was 3.67%, and this rate was 6.33% in patients with a PIVCR BSI. The crude extra mortality was 1.70 times higher. The microorganism profile showed 48.5% gram-positive bacteria (coagulase-negative Staphylococci 25.7%) and 48.5% gram-negative bacteria: Acinetobacter spp, Escherichia coli, and Klebsiella spp (8.5% each one), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (5.7%), and Candida spp (2.8%). The resistances of Pseudomonas aeruginosa were 0% to amikacin and 50% to meropenem. The resistance of Acinetobacter baumanii to amikacin was 0%, and the resistance of coagulase-negative Staphylococcus to oxacillin was 75%. CONCLUSIONS: Our PIVCR BSI rates were higher than rates from more economically developed countries and were similar to those of countries with limited resources.

Clinical management of COVID-19 paediatric cases. / Manejo clínico de casos pediátricos de COVID-19.

Coronaviruses are a family of viruses present in different species of animals, which can infect humans, causing epidemics and pandemics. On January 9th, 2020, a new virus was announced as the cause of an outbreak of severe pneumonia in Wuhan, China. On March 11th, WHO declared the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, the disease was called COVID-19. The virus is transmitted by droplets, contact and airborne during aerosol-generating procedures. In almost all pediatric cases a household contact was the source of infection. Unlike adults, the disease in children has a mild course, even in those under one year of age. The main symptoms are fever, dry or productive cough, headache, general discomfort, and shortness of breath, which is a sign of severity. The incubation period is 1-12.5 days (media 5-6 days). The most affected age group are school children. The disease may present as a mild acute upper airway infection, or as pneumonia. Very few cases progress to severe pneumonia and other complications such as acute respiratory distress syndrome, shock and multiorgan failure. There is not yet a specific antiviral treatment approved for use in children. This document aims to guide the management of suspected or confirmed pediatric patients of COVID-19.

El 9 de enero de 2020 fue anunciado un nuevo virus como la causa de un brote de neumonía grave en Wuhan, China. El 11 de marzo, la Organización Mundial de la Salud declaró la pandemia por SARS-CoV-2, virus causante de la enfermedad COVID-19. El virus se transmite por gotas, contacto y por vía aérea en procedimientos que generan aerosoles. En el caso de los niños, la fuente de contagio casi siempre es un contacto intradomiciliario. En los pacientes pediátricos, la enfermedad tiene un curso leve, incluso en los menores de un año. Los principales síntomas son: fiebre, tos seca o productiva, cefalea, malestar general y dificultad respiratoria, que es un signo de gravedad. El período de incubación es de 1 a 12.5 días (media 5-6). El grupo de edad más afectado son los escolares. La enfermedad puede presentarse como un cuadro leve de infección aguda de vías aéreas superiores o como neumonía. Muy pocos casos progresan a neumonía grave y a complicaciones como síndrome de distrés respiratorio agudo, choque y falla multiorgánica. Aún no hay tratamiento antiviral específico aprobado para su uso en niños. El presente documento tiene como objetivo guiar el manejo de los pacientes pediátricos sospechosos o confirmados de COVID-19.

Análisis de una serie de casos de tuberculosis en pacientes pediátricos atendidos en un hospital de tercer nivel / A case-series analysis of tuberculosis in pediatric patients treated in a tertiary level hospital

Resumen: Introducción: La tuberculosis (TB) continúa siendo un reto ya que las formas graves se presentan con mayor frecuencia en los menores de 5 años y el diagnóstico es complejo. El objetivo del presente trabajo fue describir las formas de presentación clínica, frecuencia, métodos de diagnóstico empleados y respuesta al tratamiento en niños con TB atendidos en un hospital de tercer nivel. Métodos: Se diseñó un estudio retrospectivo, descriptivo, de una cohorte de casos consecutivos atendidos desde enero de 2010 hasta diciembre de 2013. Se revisaron 93 expedientes clínicos de niños con diagnóstico de TB de acuerdo con la definición de la NOM-006-SSA2-2013. Se utilizó estadística descriptiva para el análisis. Resultados: El 58% de 93 niños fueron pacientes de sexo masculino con una media de edad de 7 años. El 97% contaba con antecedente de vacunación BCG; el 6% tuvo contacto con algún caso de TB. Las formas clínicas más frecuentes fueron la TB pulmonar (30.1%), ganglionar (24.7%), miliar/diseminada (16.1%), meníngea (13%) y ósea (7.5%). Los síntomas más comunes fueron fiebre y pérdida de peso (50% y 40%, respectivamente). El BAAR y el cultivo fueron positivos en el 26% y el 7% de todos los casos, respectivamente. El estudio histopatológico fue concluyente en el 90%. El tratamiento fue exitoso en el 94.6%, sin mortalidad asociada. Conclusiones: La asociación del cuadro clínico con las alteraciones en la radiografía de tórax y PPD positivo son útiles para establecer el diagnóstico presuntivo e iniciar el manejo oportuno.

Abstract: Background: Tuberculosis (TB) remains a challenge because severe forms occur most frequently in children under 5 years of age and the diagnosis is complex. The objective of this paper was to describe the clinical presentation, frequency, diagnostic methods used and response to treatment in children with TB treated at a tertiary level hospital. Methods: The study was retrospective and descriptive of a cohort of consecutive cases treated from January 2010 to December 2013. Ninety-three medical records of children diagnosed with TB according to the definition of the NOM-006-SSA2-2013 were reviewed. Descriptive statistics were used for the analysis. Results: From 93 children, 58% were male (mean age of 7 years), 97% with a history of BCG vaccination, and 6% had contact with a TB case. The most frequent clinical forms were pulmonary (30.1%), lymph node (24.7%), miliary/disseminated (16.1%), meningeal (13%), and osteal TB (7.5%). The most common symptoms were fever and weight loss (50% and 40%, respectively). BAAR and culture were positive in 26% and 7% of all cases, respectively. The histopathological study was conclusive in 90% of the cases. The treatment was successful in 94.6%, with not associated mortality. Conclusions: The association of clinical symptoms with alterations in chest radiography and positive PPD are useful in establishing the presumptive diagnosis and an early and appropriate treatment.

[A case-series analysis of tuberculosis in pediatric patients treated in a tertiary level hospital]. / Análisis de una serie de casos de tuberculosis en pacientes pediátricos atendidos en un hospital de tercer nivel.

BACKGROUND: Tuberculosis (TB) remains a challenge because severe forms occur most frequently in children under 5 years of age and the diagnosis is complex. The objective of this paper was to describe the clinical presentation, frequency, diagnostic methods used and response to treatment in children with TB treated at a tertiary level hospital. METHODS: The study was retrospective and descriptive of a cohort of consecutive cases treated from January 2010 to December 2013. Ninety-three medical records of children diagnosed with TB according to the definition of the NOM-006-SSA2-2013 were reviewed. Descriptive statistics were used for the analysis. RESULTS: From 93 children, 58% were male (mean age of 7 years), 97% with a history of BCG vaccination, and 6% had contact with a TB case. The most frequent clinical forms were pulmonary (30.1%), lymph node (24.7%), miliary/disseminated (16.1%), meningeal (13%), and osteal TB (7.5%). The most common symptoms were fever and weight loss (50% and 40%, respectively). BAAR and culture were positive in 26% and 7% of all cases, respectively. The histopathological study was conclusive in 90% of the cases. The treatment was successful in 94.6%, with not associated mortality. CONCLUSIONS: The association of clinical symptoms with alterations in chest radiography and positive PPD are useful in establishing the presumptive diagnosis and an early and appropriate treatment.

[Risk factors related to nosocomial pneumonia in pediatric patients undergoing heart surgery]. / Factores de riesgo para el desarrollo de neumonía nosocomial en pacientes pediátricos sometidos a cirugía cardiovascular.

BACKGROUND: Procalcitonin is a diagnostic marker useful to discern infections and non-infectious complications in heart surgeries. The aim is to describe risk factors related to nosocomial pneumonia and the predictive value of serum procalcitonin in pediatric patients undergoing heart surgery. METHODS: During a year a nested case-control study was carried out in a third level hospital. All patients undergoing open-heart surgery were followed and clinical data searching for pneumonia were registered every day. Blood samples for determination of procalcitonin were taken 48 hours after surgery. Those patients who developed pneumonia based on CDC clinical criteria were defined as cases; and controls were those patients who did not developed pneumonia. RESULTS: 188 patients underwent heart surgery (15 % developed pneumonia). Ninety-seven patients were submitted to open-heart surgery: 24 cases and 73 controls. Seventy-eight % of cases developed pneumonia between second and fifth day after surgery. The average time of surgery, extracorporial bypass, aortic cross-clamp, and mechanical ventilation were greater in control patients. The frequency of open sternotomy, reintubation, and surgical wound infections was greater in case patients. CONCLUSIONS: Some of the events related to heart surgery and their subsequent management are associated significantly to the development of hospital-acquired pneumonia.

Introducción: la procalcitonina (PCT) sirve para discriminar entre infección y complicaciones no infecciosas en cirugías cardiacas. Se busca describir el riesgo de neumonía nosocomial y la utilidad de la PCT en el diagnóstico de pacientes pediátricos sometidos a cirugía cardiovascular. Métodos: estudio de casos y controles anidados en una cohorte. Durante un año a todos los pacientes sometidos a cirugía cardiovascular se les hizo seguimiento diario de sus condiciones clínicas y determinación de PCT a las 48 horas de haber sido intervenidos quirúrgicamente. Se tomaron exclusivamente los pacientes sometidos a circulación extracorpórea: los casos desarrollaron neumonía según los criterios del CDC; los controles, no. Resultados: se intervinieron 188 pacientes. Desarrolló neumonía el 15 %. Fueron sometidos a circulación extracorpórea 97 pacientes, quedando 24 casos y 73 controles. El 78 % de los casos desarrolló proceso neumónico entre el segundo y el quinto día postquirúrgico. La media del tiempo quirúrgico (TQ), circulación extracorpórea (TCE), pinzamiento aórtico (TPA) y ventilación mecánica fueron mayores en los casos (p < 0.001). La frecuencia de esternotomía abierta, reintubación e infección de herida quirúrgica fue más alta en el grupo de casos (p < 0.001). Conclusiones: algunos eventos del proceso quirúrgico cardiovascular y su posterior manejo están significativamente asociados al desarrollo de neumonía nosocomial en niños.

[Clinical characteristics of pediatric patients treated for influenza A (H1N1). The 2009 pandemic in Mexico]. / Características de los pacientes pediátricos atendidos por influenza A H1N1. La pandemia de 2009 en México.

BACKGROUND: Pandemic influenza A (H1N1) virus was first reported in April 2009. The aim of this study is to describe the clinical course of patients with influenza-like illness treated in a tertiary care pediatric hospital. METHODS: Cross-sectional analytical study, encompassing the period from April 2009 to March 2010. Clinical and demographic information was obtained from clinical records. Data analysis was carried out using descriptive statistics, using a univariate analysis with the chi-square test, the exact Fisher test, and the Mann-Whitney U test for quantitative variables. RESULTS: 240 patients were included, out of which 53.9 % were female; median age was 5 years. Sixty four cases (26.6 %) were confirmed, 38 % had and underlying condition, and 10 % had received the influenza vaccine. One hundred and sixteen patients (48 %) were hospitalized. With regard to mortality, 10 out of 64 confirmed cases died, 3 of the 86 of the disregarded cases, and 2 of 90 without a confirmatory test died (p < 0.05). The patients who died started antiviral treatment on day 7; conversely, those who survived started the treatment on day 4 (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Lethality was higher in patients with confirmed infection. Antiviral treatment within the first 48 hours was observed to be essential for patients with risk for the development of complications.

INTRODUCCIÓN: en abril de 2009 se informó por primera vez del virus pandémico de la influenza A H1N1. El objetivo del presente estudio es describir el curso clínico de los pacientes atendidos con enfermedad tipo influenza en un hospital pediátrico de tercer nivel. MÉTODOS: estudio transversal analítico que comprendió el periodo de abril de 2009 a marzo de 2010. La información clínica y demográfica se obtuvo de los expedientes clínicos. El análisis de los datos se llevó a cabo mediante estadística descriptiva e inferencial, para lo cual se aplicó análisis univariado mediante chi cuadrada, prueba exacta de Fisher y U de Mann-Whitney para las variables cuantitativas. RESULTADOS: se incluyeron 240 pacientes, 53.9 % del sexo femenino; la mediana de la edad fue de cinco años. Se confirmaron 64 casos (26.6 %), 38 % tenía enfermedad subyacente y 10 % había sido vacunado contra el virus de la influenza. Fueron hospitalizados 116 pacientes (48 %). Respecto a la mortalidad, 10 casos fallecieron de los 64 confirmados, tres de los 86 casos descartados y dos de los 90 que carecían de prueba confirmatoria (p < 0.05). Los pacientes que fallecieron iniciaron tratamiento antiviral el séptimo día; por su parte, los que no fallecieron iniciaron el tratamiento en el cuarto día (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONES: la letalidad fue mayor en los pacientes con infección confirmada. Se observó que el tratamiento antiviral en las primeras 48 horas es esencial para los pacientes con riesgo para desarrollar complicaciones.

[Perinatal infection by rubella virus in breast-fed babies with congenital heart disease]. / Infección perinatal por el virus de la rubéola en lactantes con cardiopatía congénita.

BACKGROUND: seroepidemiological surveys suggest that approximately 20 % of women of childbearing age are susceptible to rubella. It is necessary to detect congenital rubella cases. Our objective was to determine the frequency of perinatal infection by rubella virus (RV) in infants with congenital heart disease. METHODS: prospective, cross-sectional study. We studied hospitalized and outpatients from September 2007 to December 2008. Neonates and infants under one year of age with congenital heart disease were included. A blood sample of 3 mL was taken from mother-child binomial and micro-ELISA for IgG and IgM against rubella were performed. RESULTS: 80 patients were studied, 56 % were female, with a median age of 3 months. More frequent congenital heart disease was ventricular septal defect (28.5 %), followed by atrial septal defect (17.5 %). Median maternal age was 28 years old. A history of febrile illness and rash during pregnancy was positive in 1.25 %. 7 cases of perinatal infection by RV were detected, three met the criteria for congenital rubella syndrome, and four had only congenital heart disease. CONCLUSIONS: the search for cases of congenital rubella syndrome in newborns and infants with heart disease could be used as a strategy to detect non-obvious cases.

Introducción: las encuestas seroepidemiológicas sugieren que 20 % de las mujeres en edad fértil es susceptible a la rubéola. El objetivo de esta investigación fue determinar la frecuencia de infección perinatal por el virus de la rubéola en lactantes con cardiopatía congénita. Métodos: estudio prospectivo y transversal de niños menores de un año de edad con diagnóstico de cardiopatía congénita. Se tomaron 3 mL de sangre al binomio madre-hijo y se realizó ELISA de micropartículas para anticuerpos IgG e IgM contra la rubéola. Resultados: se estudiaron 80 pacientes con edad de tres meses; 56 % era del sexo femenino. Las cardiopatías congénitas más frecuentes fueron las comunicaciones interventricular (28.5 %) y la interauricular (17.5 %). La mediana de la edad materna fue de 28 años; 1.25 % de las madres tuvo antecedente de enfermedad febril y exantema durante el embarazo. Se detectaron siete casos (8.75 %) de infección perinatal por el virus de la rubéola, tres cumplieron el criterio de síndrome de rubéola congénita y cuatro de cardiopatía. Conclusiones: se sugiere buscar rubéola congénita en los recién nacidos y lactantes con cardiopatías, como una estrategia para detectar los casos no obvios.

Frecuencia de infección y enfermedad por citomegalovirus y factores de riesgo para su desarrollo en pacientes pediátricos / Frequency of infection and disease due to cytomegalovirus and risk of development in pediatric kidney transplant patients

Introducción. Como complicaciones asociadas al trasplante, las infecciones representan una de las principales causas de muerte y pérdida del injerto. De ellas, las infecciones virales son la principal causa. El objetivo de este trabajo fue determinar la frecuencia de infección o enfermedad por citomegalovirus (CMV) y sus características clínicas en una cohorte de pacientes pediátricos con trasplante renal, así como los factores de riesgo asociados a su desarrollo. Métodos. Se analizó una cohorte retrospectiva. Se revisaron los expedientes de pacientes en los que se realizaron trasplantes renales desde 2004 hasta 2006, y que tuvieron al menos seguimiento por 6 meses. Se consideró como infección activa la presencia de IgM para CMV posterior al trasplante o de seroconversión o de antigenemia pp65 positiva o determinación positiva de CMV-DNA por PCR. Se definieron como casos aquellos pacientes con infección activa o enfermedad por CMV, y controles aquellos pacientes sin infección o enfermedad. Los factores de riesgo fueron edad, sexo, estado serológico para CMV previo al trasplante, tipo de donador (cadáver o vivo relacionado), profilaxis farmacológica adecuada, año de trasplante y trasfusiones sanguíneas. Resultados. De 120 trasplantes totales realizados, 81 llenaron los criterios de inclusión; de estos, 53% fueron del sexo masculino, y la media de edad de 12 años. Durante el seguimiento, 4 pacientes presentaron sospecha de infección (4.9%), en 10 pacientes se diagnóstico infección (12.3%), 2 pacientes tuvieron la enfermedad (2.5%), 1 paciente presentó rechazo del injerto más infección (1.2%), 15 pacientes presentaron rechazo por otras causas (18%) y 49 pacientes (60.5%) no presentaron complicaciones. El factor de riesgo para el desarrollo de infección o enfermedad que resultó significativo fue la serología negativa previa para CMV en el receptor [RM 3.5 (IC95% 0.94-14.74) p = 0.035]. La frecuencia de infección fue mayor en el 2004 (12/17). La profilaxis fue administrada de forma correcta únicamente en 28.9% de los pacientes. Conclusiones. La frecuencia de infección por CMV en pacientes pediátricos trasplantados fue de 20%. En pacientes de alto riesgo fue de 34% y en los de bajo riesgo, 9%. El 60% se presentaron asintomáticos, 30% con síntomas generales y 10% con síntomas específicos de enfermedad por CMV, así como alteraciones en pruebas de laboratorio. El diagnóstico en 70% se basó en determinaciones serológicas con una respuesta inmune (IgM para CMV). El único factor de riesgo significativo fue la falta de respuesta inmune contra CMV previa al trasplante.

Background. In regard to transplant-associated complications, infections represent one of the principal causes of death and graft loss. Of these, viral infections are the principal cause. The aim of this study was to determine the frequency of infection and/or disease due to cytomegalovirus (CMV) and clinical presentation in a cohort of pediatric kidney transplant patients as well as to present the risk factors associated with its development. Methods. We carried out a retrospective cohort study. Clinical files of patients who underwent kidney transplantation between 2004 and 2006 and with a minimum of 6 months of follow-up were reviewed. Active infection was considered if a positive IgM to CMV after transplant was detected or seroconversion or positive pp65 antigenemia or CMV-DNA positive PCR test. Cases represented patients with active infection or disease and controls were patients without infection and/or disease. Risk factors investigated were age, serological status previous to transplant, donor, drug prophylaxis, year of transplant and blood transfusions. Results. Of 120 transplant patients, 81 fulfilled the inclusion criteria; 53% were male and 47% female with a median age of 12 years. During follow-up, four patients presented a probable infection (4.9%), ten patients had active infection (12.3%), two patients had CMV disease (2.5%), and one patient experienced rejection plus infection (1.2%). Fifteen patients presented rejection due to different causes (18%) and 49 patients (60.5%) did not develop complications. The only significant risk factor for development of infection or disease was a previous negative serological status for CMV (OR 3.58 95% CI 0.94-14.74, p = 0.035). Frequency of infection was higher in the year 2004 (12/17 patients). Prophylaxis was administered correctly in only 28.9% of the patients. Conclusions. Frequency of CMV infection in pediatric kidney transplant patients was 20%. Among high-risk groups, frequency was 34% and decreased to 9% among low-risk groups. Most infected patients were asymptomatic, 30% presented general symptoms and 10% presented specific signs of CMV disease. Serological diagnosis was performed for most of the cases (IgM to CMV). The only significant risk factor for development of CMV infection was negative serological status for CMV previous to transplant.

Uso de prueba rápida para la detección de infección por VIH en pediatría / Rapid test to detect HIV antibodies in pediatrics

En los últimos años, las pruebas rápidas para la determinación de anticuerpos contra el virus de inmunodeficiencia humana (VIH) han tenido un notable desarrollo; su exactitud es equivalente a la de los algoritmos convencionales y suman a ello la rapidez y sencillez en su realización, y quizá el de un menor costo. Además, el uso de sangre total o líquido oral hace a estas pruebas susceptibles de aplicarse en puntos de atención clínica hospitalarios o no hospitalarios. Estas características las vuelven ideales para su aplicación en todas las mujeres que acuden a atención de parto y desconocen su estado serológico respecto al VIH, con el fin de evitar la transmisión vertical del virus. Por otra parte, y en forma mucho menos estudiada, es la aplicación de estas pruebas rápidas en la atención a adolescentes que inician su vida sexual; sus características de no invasión, rapidez y, sobre todo, que pueden ser realizadas en un medio no hospitalario, las hacen atractivas para este grupo etario. Para que este tipo de ensayos sean adquiridos en forma más abierta en nuestro país, y contribuyan al control de la pandemia, es necesaria la educación para la salud, fomentar la responsabilidad por los usuarios, además de más estudios clínicos y mejoras en la organización social.

During the past years, rapid tests to detect human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) antibodies have been introduced and include new formats and different types of samples. Rapid assays that can be used with whole blood or oral fluid specimens have now been developed and make point-of-care HIV testing feasible. They are suitable for application in untested pregnant women during labor or delivery and prevent vertical transmission. Acceptance of rapid test among young persons that begins with sexual activity is superior to the traditional algorithm for HIV diagnosis, because of the following: 1) immediate results, 2) lack of invasive procedures and 3) accessibility in areas outside of hospital facilities. New clinical research studies, responsibility and education by users and social organization are needed in order to provide greater access to rapid testing, prevention and medical care for persons living with HIV in Mexico.

[Is there a shift in the epidemiology of hepatitis A in Mexican children?]. / Existe transición en el patrón endémico de la hepatitis A en población infantil mexicana?

INTRODUCTION: Twenty years ago, prevalence of Hepatitis A in Mexican children was 90%. OBJECTIVE: To describe a shift in the prevalence of Hepatitis A virus (HAV) infection and to demonstrate an increment in the age at the first contact with HAV, in a sample of Mexican children. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Reports of antiviral serologic studies collected from 1991 to 2005 from patients attending a pediatric hospital, were reviewed, and those with IgM anti-HAV positive in serum were selected. Age at the moment of acute infection was analyzed. Additionally, a serological survey searching IgG anti-HAV was made in a group of HAV unvaccinated children. RESULTS: From 1708 determinations of IgM, 221 were positive (13%). According to the year of report, five groups were constituted. Mean age by group was: 1991-1993 of 6.4 years, 1994-1996 of 8.0, 1997-1999 of 8.4, 2000-2002 of 8.0 and from 2003-2005 of 10.1 years. In a cohort of 259 unvaccinated children (mean of age 8.59 years), IgG antibodies were detected in 51%. CONCLUSION: In the infantile population studied a Hepatitis A epidemiology shift is suggested.

Pileflebitis séptica criptogénica / Cryptogenic septic pylephlebitis

Introducción. La piliflebitis séptica con trombosis es un proceso infeccioso grave, poco frecuente en Pediatría, generalmente secundario a procesos inflamatorios abdominales y raramente criptogénico. Caso clínico. Se describe el caso de un paciente masculino de diez años de edad, que presentó dolor abdominal difuso, fiebre, vómito, hepatoesplenomegalia dolorosa a la palpación, leucocitosis con neutrofilia y bandemia. Se aislaron Bacteroides spp y Peptostreptococcus spp de hemocultivo y mielocultivo. Por estudios de ultrasonido abdominal, tomografía axial computada y resonancia magnética se diagnosticó trombosis portal y abcesos hepáticos piógenos. No se encontró foco infeccioso que pudiera ser catalogado como el sitio primario de infección que hubiese condicionado la complicación portal y hepática por lo que se consideró el proceso como criptogénico. Conclusiones. La pileflebitis séptica es una patología poco frecuente que debe ser considerada en el diagnóstico diferencial de absceso hepático y en los casos de hepato-esplenomegalia más fiebre en la etapa escolar