Transcriptomic and clonal characterization of T cells in the human central nervous system.

T cells provide critical immune surveillance to the central nervous system (CNS), and the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is thought to be a main route for their entry. Further characterization of the state of T cells in the CSF in healthy individuals is important for understanding how T cells provide protective immune surveillance without damaging the delicate environment of the CNS and providing tissue-specific context for understanding immune dysfunction in neuroinflammatory disease. Here, we have profiled T cells in the CSF of healthy human donors and have identified signatures related to cytotoxic capacity and tissue adaptation that are further exemplified in clonally expanded CSF T cells. By comparing profiles of clonally expanded T cells obtained from the CSF of patients with multiple sclerosis (MS) and healthy donors, we report that clonally expanded T cells from the CSF of patients with MS have heightened expression of genes related to T cell activation and cytotoxicity.

High-throughput investigation of molecular and cellular biomarkers in NMOSD.

OBJECTIVE: To identify candidate biomarkers associated with neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD) using high-throughput technologies that broadly assay the concentrations of serum analytes and frequencies of immune cell subsets. METHODS: Sera, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), and matched clinical data from participants with NMOSD and healthy controls (HCs) were obtained from the Collaborative International Research in Clinical and Longitudinal Experience Study NMOSD biorepository. Flow cytometry panels were used to measure the frequencies of 39 T-cell, B-cell, regulatory T-cell, monocyte, natural killer (NK) cell, and dendritic cell subsets in unstimulated PBMCs. In parallel, multiplex proteomics assays were used to measure 46 serum cytokines and chemokines in 2 independent NMOSD and HC cohorts. Multivariable regression models were used to assess molecular and cellular profiles in NMOSD compared with HC. RESULTS: NMOSD samples had a lower frequency of CD16+CD56+ NK cells. Both serum cohorts and multivariable logistic regression revealed increased levels of B-cell activating factor associated with NMOSD. Interleukin 6, CCL22, and CCL3 were also elevated in 1 NMOSD cohort of the 2 analyzed. Multivariable linear regression of serum analyte levels revealed a correlation between CX3CL1 (fractalkine) levels and the number of days since most recent disease relapse. CONCLUSIONS: Integrative analyses of cytokines, chemokines, and immune cells in participants with NMOSD and HCs provide congruence with previously identified biomarkers of NMOSD and highlight CD16+CD56+ NK cells and CX3CL1 as potential novel biomarker candidates.

Phenotypic and Ig Repertoire Analyses Indicate a Common Origin of IgD-CD27- Double Negative B Cells in Healthy Individuals and Multiple Sclerosis Patients.

IgD-CD27- double negative (DN) B cells with proinflammatory characteristics are abnormally elevated in a proportion of multiple sclerosis (MS) patients. In this study, the origin and selection characteristics of DN B cells were studied in MS patients and healthy controls (HC). Expression of developmental markers on peripheral blood DN, IgD-CD27+ class-switched memory (CSM) and IgD+CD27- naive B cells of HC (n = 48) and MS patients (n = 96) was determined by flow cytometry. High-throughput adaptive immune receptor repertoire sequencing was performed on peripheral blood DN and CSM B cells of HC and MS patients (n = 3 each). DN B cells from HC and MS patients showed similar phenotypic and Ig repertoire characteristics. Phenotypic analysis indicated a mature state of DN B cells by low CD5, CD10, and CD38 expression. However, the frequency of CD95+ and IgA+ cells was lower in DN versus CSM B cells. DN B cells are Ag experienced, as shown by somatic hypermutation of their Ig genes in adaptive immune receptor repertoire sequencing, although they showed a lower mutation load than CSM B cells. Shared clones were found between DN and CSM B cells, although >95% of the clones were unique to each population, and differences in V(D)J usage and CDR3 physicochemical properties were found. Thus, DN B cells arise in HC and MS patients via a common developmental pathway that is probably linked to immune aging. However, DN and CSM B cells develop through unique differentiation pathways, with most DN B cells representing an earlier maturation state.

Single-cell RNA sequencing reveals microglia-like cells in cerebrospinal fluid during virologically suppressed HIV.

Central nervous system (CNS) immune activation is an important driver of neuronal injury during several neurodegenerative and neuroinflammatory diseases. During HIV infection, CNS immune activation is associated with high rates of neurocognitive impairment, even during sustained long-term suppressive antiretroviral therapy (ART). However, the cellular subsets that drive immune activation and neuronal damage in the CNS during HIV infection and other neurological conditions remain unknown, in part because CNS cells are difficult to access in living humans. Using single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) on cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and blood from adults with and without HIV, we identified a rare (<5% of cells) subset of myeloid cells that are found only in CSF and that present a gene expression signature that overlaps significantly with neurodegenerative disease-associated microglia. This highlights the power of scRNA-seq of CSF to identify rare CNS immune cell subsets that may perpetuate neuronal injury during HIV infection and other conditions.

Functional analysis of the cyclophilin PpiB role in bacterial cell division.

Escherichia coli PpiB is a peptidyl-prolyl cis/trans isomerase (PPIase, EC: 5.2.1.8) with chaperone activity. Here, we show that the ΔppiB deletion strain and the PpiB over-expression wild-type strain are both characterized by defects in cell division involving milder or severe cell filamentation, respectively. Using various PpiB mutants, we show that the PPIase activity of PpiB is necessary for the observed cell filamentation, whereas other structural features apart from the active site are also important for this phenotype. Early divisome components zipA and ftsZ showed decreased expression in ΔppiB cells, whereas the corresponding proteins partially suppressed the division phenotype of ΔppiB cells as well. Although PpiB itself has no obvious specific affinity for the septal ring as a GFP translational fusion showed a diffuse cytoplasmic localization, it interacts with FtsZ employing the C-terminal FtsZ domain, decreases its GTPase activity and when over-expressed shows an inhibitory effect on the proper FtsZ localization at future division sites. Furthermore, additional putative PpiB prey proteins are able to partially restore the ΔppiB phenotype indicating that PpiB is able to control bacterial cell division by probably modulating the function of various other proteins which are indirectly associated with the process.

Cyclophilin PpiB is involved in motility and biofilm formation via its functional association with certain proteins.

PpiB belongs to the superfamily of peptidyl-prolyl cis/trans isomerases (PPIases, EC: 5.2.1.8), which catalyze the rate-limiting protein folding step at peptidyl-prolyl bonds and control several biological processes. In this study, we show that PpiB acts as a negative effector of motility and biofilm formation ability of Escherichia coli. We identify multicopy suppressors of each ΔppiB phenotype among putative PpiB prey proteins which upon deletion are often characterized by analogous phenotypes. Many putative preys show similar gene expression in wild-type and ΔppiB genetic backgrounds implying possible post-translational modifications by PpiB. We further conducted in vivo and in vitro interaction screens to determine which of them represent true preys. For DnaK, acetyl-CoA carboxylase, biotin carboxylase subunit (AccC) and phosphate acetyltransferase (Pta) we also showed a direct role of PpiB in the functional control of these proteins because it increased the measured enzyme activity of each protein and further interfered with DnaK localization and the correct folding of AccC. Taken together, these results indicate that PpiB is involved in diverse regulatory mechanisms to negatively modulate motility and biofilm formation via its functional association with certain protein substrates.

Functional interaction of Azotobacter vinelandii cytoplasmic cyclophilin with the biotin carboxylase subunit of acetyl-CoA carboxylase.

Cyclophilins (E.C. 5.1.2.8) are protein chaperones with peptidyl-prolyl cis/trans isomerase activity (PPIase). In the present study, we demonstrate a physical interaction among AvppiB, encoding the cytoplasmic cyclophilin from the soil nitrogen-fixing bacterium Azotobacter vinelandii, and AvaccC, encoding the biotin carboxylase subunit of acetyl-CoA carboxylase, which catalyzes the committed step in long-chain fatty acid synthesis. A decrease in AvppiB PPIase activity, in the presence of AvaccC, further confirms the interaction. However, PPIase activity seems not to be essential for these interactions since a PPIase active site mutant of cyclophilin does not abolish the AvaccC binding. We further show that the presence of cyclophilin largely influences the measured ATP hydrolyzing activity of AvaccA in a way that is negatively regulated by the PPIase activity. Taken together, our data support a novel role for cyclophilin in regulating biotin carboxylase activity.

Biochemical characterization of two Azotobacter vinelandii FKBPs and analysis of their interaction with the small subunit of carbamoyl phosphate synthetase.

FK-506 binding proteins (FKBPs) belong to the peptidyl-prolyl cis/trans isomerase superfamily (PPIases, EC: 5.2.1.8) which catalyzes the interconversion of peptidyl-prolyl bonds while they can also act on polypeptides, as folding helper enzymes. Here, we biochemically characterize two recombinant FKBPs, AvfkbA1 and AvfkbA2, from the soil nitrogen-fixing bacterium Azotobacter vinelandii and show that both possess PPIase activity while AvfkbA2 possesses chaperone activity as well. Further, we demonstrate their physical interaction with AvcarA, the small subunit of carbamoyl phosphate synthetase. Using RT-qPCR, we show that AvfkbA1 and AvfkbA2 are co-expressed with AvcarA under the same growth conditions. A decrease in AvfkbA1 or AvfkbA2 PPIase activity, in the presence of AvcarA, further confirms each interaction. However, PPIase activity does not seem to be essential for these interactions since PPIase active site mutations of both FKBPs do not abolish the AvcarA binding. The P(358) residue of AvcarA, possibly retaining a cis configuration, is critical only for the interaction with AvfkbA1. The presence of either of the two FKBPs did not influence the measured glutamine hydrolyzing activity of AvcarA. Taken together, these data indicate that although the two FKBPs have a common biological substrate they probably have differing physiological roles.

The cytoplasmic cyclophilin from Azotobacter vinelandii interacts with phosphate acetyltransferase isoforms enhancing their in vitro activity.

Cyclophilins belong to the peptidyl-prolyl cis/trans isomerase family of enzymes (EC 5.2.1.8), which accelerate protein folding by catalysing the cis/trans isomerisation of proline imidic peptide bonds. In the present study, by a combination of bioinformatics methods, we identify phosphate acetyltransferase isoforms, AvPTA-1 and AvPTA-2, as potential interacting partners of AvPPIB, the cytoplasmic cyclophilin from Azotobacter vinelandii, and demonstrate their physical interaction by co-expression studies. A decrease in AvPPIB PPIase activity, in the presence of AvPTA-1 or AvPTA-2, further confirms each interaction. Phosphate acetyltransferases (EC 2.3.1.8) catalyse the reversible transfer of the acetyl group from acetyl-P to CoA, forming acetyl-CoA and inorganic phosphate. We examined the effect of AvPPIB on the enzymatic activity of both phosphate acetyltransferase isoforms, and noticed an enhancement of the activity, as well as an alteration of the K ( m ) of each isoform, for the reaction substrates, indicating a possible function of AvPPIB in phosphate acetyltransferase activity modulation. Although PPIase activity seems not to be essential for these interactions, since AvPPIB(F99A) active site mutant still interacts with both isoforms, it is responsible for the observed phosphate acetyltransferase activity enhancement as AvPPIB(F99A) enhanced to a significantly lower extent the phosphate acetyltransferase activity of both isoforms compared with AvPPIB.

Transcriptional and biochemical characterization of two Azotobacter vinelandii FKBP family members.

Peptidyl-prolyl cis/trans isomerases (PPIases, EC: 5.2.1.8), a class of enzymes that catalyse the rate-limiting step of the cis/trans isomerization in protein folding, are divided into three structurally unrelated families: cyclophilins, FK506-binding proteins (FKBPs), and parvulins. Two recombinant FKBPs from the soil nitrogen-fixing bacterium Azotobacter vinelandii, designated as AvfkbX and AvfkbB, have been purified and their peptidyl-prolyl cis/trans isomerase activity against Suc-Ala-Xaa-Pro-Phe-pNA synthetic peptides characterised. The substrate specificity of both enzymes is typical for bacterial FKBPs, with Suc-Ala-Phe-Pro-Phe-pNA being the most rapidly catalysed substrate by AvfkbX and Suc-Ala-Leu-Pro-Phe-pNA by AvfkbB. Both FKBPs display chaperone activity as well in the citrate synthase thermal aggregation assay. Furthermore, using real-time RT-qPCR, we demonstrated that both genes were expressed during the exponential growth phase on glucose minimal medium, while their expression declined dramatically during the stationary growth phase as well as when the growth medium was supplied exogenously with ammonium.