Multitarget 2'-hydroxychalcones as potential drugs for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders and their comorbidities.

The complex nature of neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs), such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD) calls for multidirectional treatment. Restoring neurotransmitter levels by combined inhibition of cholinesterases (ChEs) and monoamine oxidases (MAOs, MAO-A and MAO-B), in conjunction with strategies to counteract amyloid ß (Aß) aggregation, may constitute a therapeutically strong multi-target approach for the treatment of NDDs. Chalcones are a subgroup of flavonoids with a broad spectrum of biological activity. We report here the synthesis of 2'-hydroxychalcones as MAO-A and MAO-B inhibitors. Compounds 5c (IC50 = 0.031 ± 0.001 µM), 5a (IC50 = 0.084 ± 0.003 µM), 2c (IC50 = 0.095 ± 0.019 µM) and 2a (IC50 = 0.111 ± 0.006 µM) were the most potent, selective and reversible inhibitors of human (h)MAO-B isoform. hMAO-B inhibitors 1a, 2a and 5a also inhibited murine MAO-B in vivo in mouse brain homogenates. Molecular modelling rationalised the binding mode of 2'-hydroxychalcones in the active site of hMAO-B. Additionally, several derivatives inhibited murine acetylcholinesterase (mAChE) (IC50 values from 4.37 ± 0.83 µM to 15.17 ± 6.03 µM) and reduced the aggregation propensity of Aß. Moreover, some derivatives bound to the benzodiazepine binding site (BDZ-bs) of the γ-aminobutyric acid A (GABAA) receptors (1a and 2a with Ki = 4.9 ± 1.1 µM and 5.0 ± 1.1 µM, respectively), and exerted sedative and/or anxiolytic like effects on mice. The biological results reported here on 2'-hydroxychalcones provide an extension to previous studies on chalcone scaffold and show them as a potential treatment strategy for NDDs and their associated comorbidities.

Plasma Membrane Ca2+ Pump PMCA4z Is More Active Than Splicing Variant PMCA4x.

The plasma membrane Ca2+ pumps (PMCA) are P-ATPases that control Ca2+ signaling and homeostasis by transporting Ca2+ out of the eukaryotic cell. Humans have four genes that code for PMCA isoforms (PMCA1-4). A large diversity of PMCA isoforms is generated by alternative mRNA splicing at sites A and C. The different PMCA isoforms are expressed in a cell-type and developmental-specific manner and exhibit differential sensitivity to a great number of regulatory mechanisms. PMCA4 has two A splice variants, the forms "x" and "z". While PMCA4x is ubiquitously expressed and relatively well-studied, PMCA4z is less characterized and its expression is restricted to some tissues such as the brain and heart muscle. PMCA4z lacks a stretch of 12 amino acids in the so-called A-M3 linker, a conformation-sensitive region of the molecule connecting the actuator domain (A) with the third transmembrane segment (M3). We expressed in yeast PMCA4 variants "x" and "z", maintaining constant the most frequent splice variant "b" at the C-terminal end, and obtained purified preparations of both proteins. In the basal autoinhibited state, PMCA4zb showed a higher ATPase activity and a higher apparent Ca2+ affinity than PMCA4xb. Both isoforms were stimulated by calmodulin but PMCA4zb was more strongly activated by acidic lipids than PMCA4xb. The results indicate that a PMCA4 intrinsically more active and more responsive to acidic lipids is produced by the variant "z" of the splicing site A.

Reduction of the P5A-ATPase Spf1p phosphoenzyme by a Ca2+-dependent phosphatase.

P5 ATPases are eukaryotic pumps important for cellular metal ion, lipid and protein homeostasis; however, their transported substrate, if any, remains to be identified. Ca2+ was proposed to act as a ligand of P5 ATPases because it decreases the level of phosphoenzyme of the Spf1p P5A ATPase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Repeating previous purification protocols, we obtained a purified preparation of Spf1p that was close to homogeneity and exhibited ATP hydrolytic activity that was stimulated by the addition of CaCl2. Strikingly, a preparation of a catalytically dead mutant Spf1p (D487N) also exhibited Ca2+-dependent ATP hydrolytic activity. These results indicated that the Spf1p preparation contained a co-purifying protein capable of hydrolyzing ATP at a high rate. The activity was likely due to a phosphatase, since the protein i) was highly active when pNPP was used as substrate, ii) required Ca2+ or Zn2+ for activity, and iii) was strongly inhibited by molybdate, beryllium and other phosphatase substrates. Mass spectrometry identified the phosphatase Pho8p as a contaminant of the Spf1p preparation. Modification of the purification procedure led to a contaminant-free Spf1p preparation that was neither stimulated by Ca2+ nor inhibited by EGTA or molybdate. The phosphoenzyme levels of a contaminant-free Spf1p preparation were not affected by Ca2+. These results indicate that the reported effects of Ca2+ on Spf1p do not reflect the intrinsic properties of Spf1p but are mediated by the activity of the accompanying phosphatase.

The Parkinson-associated human P5B-ATPase ATP13A2 modifies lipid homeostasis.

Mutations in the ATP13A2 gene (PARK9, CLN12, OMIM 610513) were initially associated with a form of Parkinson's Disease (PD) known as Kufor Rakeb Syndrome (KRS). However, the genetic spectrum of ATP13A2-associated disorders was expanded in the last years, because it has been found to underlay variants of neuronal ceroid-lipofuscinoses (NCLs) and hereditary spastic paraplegia. As ATP13A2 seems to be a key component of the endo-lysosome pathway, the fact that these pathologies are commonly characterized by endo-lysosomal dysfunction is not surprising. Here we report that increasing the level of functional ATP13A2 in a stable SH-SY5Y cell line disrupts lipid homeostasis. ATP13A2 overexpression increases the fluorescence intensity of the fluorescent analog phosphatidylethanolamine (NBD-PE) and the formation of multilamellar bodies, resembling the so-called "drug-induced phospholipidosis". We also found that expression of ATP13A2 reduces the ceramide-fluorescence intensity and the content of bis(monoacylglyceryl)phosphate (BMP). BMP is required for lipid degradation and exosome biogenesis inside acidic compartments, so this result suggests that ATP13A2 may be modifying the lipid digestion capacity and/or the redistribution of lipids in these subcellular organelles. In addition, ATP13A2-overexpression decreased the total content of triglycerides (TGs), cholesterol and lipid droplets. As TGs are necessary for the synthesis of new membranes, this observation suggests that increasing the function of ATP13A2 switches the endo-lysosomal system towards vesicle secretion.

Chalcone derivatives: synthesis, in vitro and in vivo evaluation of their anti-anxiety, anti-depression and analgesic effects.

Anxiety disorders, depression and pain are highly prevalent pathologies. Their pharmacotherapy is associated with unwanted side effects; hence there is a clinical need to develop more effective drugs with fewer adverse reactions. Chalcones are one of the major classes of naturally occurring compounds. Chalcones and their derivatives have a huge importance in medicinal chemistry, displaying a wide range of pharmacological activities including anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, cytotoxic and antitumor actions. The aim of this work was to evaluate chalcone effects on different targets involved in these pathologies. We have synthesized a series of simple chalcone derivatives taking common structural requirements described in literature related to their anxiolytic-like, antidepressant-like and/or antinociceptive properties into account. Furthermore, their potential in vitro effects towards different targets involved in these pathologies were evaluated. We have obtained twenty chalcones with moderate to high yields and assessed their ability to bind distinctive receptors, from rat brain homogenates, by displacement of labelled specific ligands: [3H] FNZ (binding site of benzodiazepines/GABAA), [3H] 8-OH-DPAT (serotonin 5-HT1A) and [3H] DAMGO (µ-opioid). Those compounds that showed the better in vitro activities were evaluated in mice using different behavioural tasks. In vivo results showed that 5'-methyl-2'-hydroxychalcone (9) exerted anxiolytic-like effects in mice in the plus maze test. While chalcone nuclei (1) revealed antidepressant-like activities in the tail suspension test. In addition, the novel 5'-methyl-2'-hydroxy-3'-nitrochalcone (12) exhibited antinociceptive activity in acute chemical and thermal nociception tests (writhing and hot plate tests). In conclusion, chalcones are thus promising compounds for the development of novel drugs with central nervous system (CNS) actions.

The strategic function of the P5-ATPase ATP13A2 in toxic waste disposal.

The P-type ATPase ATP13A2 protein was originally associated with a form of Parkinson's Disease (PD) known as Kufor Rakeb Syndrome (KRS). However, in the last years it has been found to underlay variants of neuronal ceroid-lipofuscinoses and hereditary spastic paraplegia. These findings expand the clinical and genetic spectrum of ATP13A2-associated disorders, which are commonly characterized by lysosomal dysfunction. Nowadays it is well known that lysosomes are not merely related to the degradation and recycling of cellular waste, but are also involved in fundamental processes such as secretion, plasma membrane repair, signaling, energy metabolism and autophagy. The essential role of lysosomes in these cellular processes has significant implications for health and disease. ATP13A2 is localized in lysosomes and late endosomes and its mutation leads to lysosome dysfunction, diminishes the exosome secretion and impairs autophagic flux. In this review, we first describe ATP13A2-associated disorders and their relation with the endolysosomal pathway. We then describe the ATP13A2-involvement in iron homeostasis and its potential linkage with new pathologies like cancer, and finally, we consider the putative role of ATP13A2 in lipid processing and degradation, opening the interesting possibility of a broader role of this protein providing protection against a variety of disease-associated changes affecting cellular homeostasis.

The Parkinson-associated human P5B-ATPase ATP13A2 protects against the iron-induced cytotoxicity.

P-type ion pumps are membrane transporters that have been classified into five subfamilies termed P1-P5. The ion transported by the P5-ATPases is not known. Five genes named ATP13A1-ATP13A5 that belong to the P5-ATPase group are present in humans. Loss-of-function mutations in the ATP13A2 gene (PARK9, OMIM 610513) underlay a form of Parkinson's disease (PD) known as the Kufor-Rakeb syndrome (KRS), which belongs to the group of syndromes of neurodegeneration with brain iron accumulation (NBIA). Here we report that the cytotoxicity induced by iron exposure was two-fold reduced in CHO cells stably expressing the ATP13A2 recombinant protein (ATP13A2). Moreover, the iron content in ATP13A2 cells was lower than control cells stably expressing an inactive mutant of ATP13A2. ATP13A2 expression caused an enlargement of lysosomes and late endosomes. ATP13A2 cells exhibited a reduced iron-induced lysosome membrane permeabilization (LMP). These results suggest that ATP13A2 overexpression improves the lysosome membrane integrity and protects against the iron-induced cell damage.

On the role of ATP release, ectoATPase activity, and extracellular ADP in the regulatory volume decrease of Huh-7 human hepatoma cells.

Hypotonicity triggered in human hepatoma cells (Huh-7) the release of ATP and cell swelling, followed by volume regulatory decrease (RVD). We analyzed how the interaction between those processes modulates cell volume. Cells exposed to hypotonic medium swelled 1.5 times their basal volume. Swelling was followed by 41% RVD(40) (extent of RVD after 40 min of maximum), whereas the concentration of extracellular ATP (ATP(e)) increased 10 times to a maximum value at 15 min. Exogenous apyrase (which removes di- and trinucleotides) did not alter RVD, whereas exogenous Na(+)-K(+)-ATPase (which converts ATP to ADP in the extracellular medium) enhanced RVD(40) by 2.6 times, suggesting that hypotonic treatment alone produced a basal RVD, whereas extracellular ADP activated RVD to achieve complete volume regulation (i.e., RVD(40) ≈100%). Under hypotonicity, addition of 2-(methylthio)adenosine 5'-diphosphate (2MetSADP; ADP analog) increased RVD to the same extent as exposure to Na(+)-K(+)-ATPase and the same analog did not stimulate RVD when coincubated with MRS2211, a blocker of ADP receptor P2Y(13). RT-PCR and Western blot analysis confirmed the presence of P2Y(13). Cells exhibited significant ectoATPase activity, which according to RT-PCR analysis can be assigned to ENTPDase2. Both carbenoxolone, a blocker of conductive ATP release, and brefeldin A, an inhibitor of exocytosis, were able to partially decrease ATP(e) accumulation, pointing to the presence of at least two mechanisms for ATP release. Thus, in Huh-7 cells, hypotonic treatment triggered the release of ATP. Conversion of ATP(e) to ADP(e) by ENTPDase 2 activity facilitates the accumulated ADP(e) to activate P2Y(13) receptors, which mediate complete RVD.

Parkinson's disease-associated human P5B-ATPase ATP13A2 increases spermidine uptake.

P-type ion pumps are membrane transporters that have been classified into five subfamilies termed P1-P5. The ion transported by the P5-ATPases is not known. Five genes, ATP13A (ATPase type 13A) 1-ATP13A5, that belong to the P5-ATPase group have been identified in humans. Mutations of the human gene ATP13A2 underlie a form of PD (Parkinson's disease). Previous studies have suggested a relation between polyamines and P5B-ATPases. We have recently shown that the cytotoxicity induced by the polyamine analogue paraquat (1,1'-dimethyl-4,4'-bipyridinium), which is an environmental agent related to PD development, was increased in ATP13A2-expressing CHO (Chinese-hamster ovary) cells. In the present study we showed that ATP13A2-expressing CHO cells exhibit a 2-fold higher accumulation of spermidine. Increasing concentrations of spermidine reduced the viability of CHO cells stably expressing ATP13A2. The higher levels of spermidine attained by the ATP13A2-expressing CHO cells were correlated with an increase in the ATP-dependent spermidine uptake in an isolated subcellular fraction containing lysosomes and late endosomes. The results of the present study support the idea that the human P5B-ATPase ATP13A2 is involved in polyamine uptake.

Shadows of an absent partner: ATP hydrolysis and phosphoenzyme turnover of the Spf1 (sensitivity to Pichia farinosa killer toxin) P5-ATPase.

The P5-ATPases are important components of eukaryotic cells. They have been shown to influence protein biogenesis, folding, and transport. The knowledge of their biochemical properties is, however, limited, and the transported ions are still unknown. We expressed in Saccharomyces cerevisiae the yeast Spf1 P5A-ATPase containing the GFP fused at the N-terminal end. The GFP-Spf1 protein was localized in the yeast endoplasmic reticulum. Purified preparations of GFP-Spf1 hydrolyzed ATP at a rate of ~0.3-1 µmol of P(i)/mg/min and formed a phosphoenzyme in a simple reaction medium containing no added metal ions except Mg(2+). No significant differences were found between the ATPase activity of GFP-Spf1 and recombinant Spf1. Omission of protease inhibitors from the purification buffers resulted in a high level of endogenous proteolysis at the C-terminal portion of the GFP-Spf1 molecule that abolished phosphoenzyme formation. The Mg(2+) dependence of the GFP-Spf1 ATPase was similar to that of other P-ATPases where Mg(2+) acts as a cofactor. The addition of Mn(2+) to the reaction medium decreased the ATPase activity. The enzyme manifested optimal activity at a near neutral pH. When chased by the addition of cold ATP, 90% of the phosphoenzyme remained stable after 5 s. In contrast, the phosphoenzyme rapidly decayed to less than 20% when chased for 3 s by the addition of ADP. The greater effect of ADP accelerating the disappearance of EP suggests that GFP-Spf1 accumulated the E1~P phosphoenzyme. This behavior may reflect a limiting countertransported substrate needed to promote turnover or a missing regulatory factor.

Deletions in the A(L) region of the h4xb plasma membrane Ca(2+) pump. High apparent affinity for Ca(2+) of a deletion mutant resembling the alternative spliced form h4zb.

Mutants of the plasma membrane Ca(2+) pump (human isoform 4xb) with deletions in the linker between domain A and transmembrane segment M3 (A(L) region) were constructed and expressed in Chinese hamster ovary cells. The total or partial removal of the amino acid segment 300-349 did not change the maximal Ca(2+) transport activity, but mutants with deletions involving residues 300-338 exhibited a higher apparent affinity for Ca(2+) than the wild type h4xb enzyme. Deletion of the putative acidic lipid interacting sequence (residues 339-349) had no observable functional consequences. The removal of either residues 300-314 or 313-338 resulted in a similar increase in the apparent Ca(2+) affinity of the pump although the increase was somewhat lower than that obtained by the deletion 300-349 suggesting that both deletions affected the same structural determinant. The results show that alterations in the region of the alternative splicing site A change the sensitivity to Ca(2+) of the human isoform 4 of the PMCA.