An Assessment of Vegetation Changes in the Three-River Headwaters Region, China: Integrating NDVI and Its Spatial Heterogeneity.

Assessing vegetation changes in alpine arid and fragile ecosystems is imperative for informed ecological restoration initiatives and adaptive ecosystem management. Previous studies primarily employed the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) to reveal vegetation dynamics, ignoring the spatial heterogeneity alterations caused by bare soil. In this study, we used a comprehensive analysis of NDVI and its spatial heterogeneity to examine the vegetation changes across the Three-River Headwaters Region (TRHR) over the past two decades. A random forest model was used to elucidate the underlying causes of these changes. We found that between 2000 and 2022, 9.4% of the regions exhibited significant changes in both NDVI and its spatial heterogeneity. These regions were categorized into six distinct types of vegetation change: improving conditions (62.1%), regrowing conditions (11.0%), slight degradation (16.2%), medium degradation (8.4%), severe degradation (2.0%), and desertification (0.3%). In comparison with steppe regions, meadows showed a greater proportion of improved conditions and medium degradation, whereas steppes had more instances of regrowth and slight degradation. Climate variables are the dominant factors that caused vegetation changes, with contributions to NDVI and spatial heterogeneity reaching 68.9% and 73.2%, respectively. Temperature is the primary driver of vegetation dynamics across the different types of change, with a more pronounced impact in meadows. In severely degraded steppe and meadow regions, grazing intensity emerged as the predominant driver of NDVI change, with an importance value exceeding 0.50. Notably, as degradation progressed from slight to severe, the significance of this factor correspondingly increased. Our findings can provide effective information for guiding the implementation of ecological restoration projects and the sustainable management of alpine arid ecosystems.

[Spatial Distribution Characteristics of Plant Community and the Identification of Driving Factors in Riparian Zone of the Three-River Headwaters Region, China].

The unique geographical and climatic conditions in the Three-River Headwaters Region gave birth to distinctive plant species and vegetation types. To reveal the spatial distribution of plant communities and soil habitats along the riparian zone of the Sanjiangyuan Region and their influencing mechanisms, 14 survey plots were set up （ten from the Yangtze River source, two from the Lancang River source, and two from the Yellow River source）, and the effects of soil nutrient characteristics （especially soil phosphorus morphology）, climate factors, and river topography on plant community characteristics were quantitatively analyzed. The results showed that the plant community composition in the riparian zone of the source of the three rivers was dominated by perennial herbs （72.2%）, followed by annual herbs （20.4%） and shrubs （7.4%）. The dominant plants were Stipa purpurea, Polygonum orbiculatum, Carex parvula, Potentilla anserina, and Gentiana straminea. The average plant coverage, Shannon-Wiener index, and Pielou index were （64.4% ±23.6%）, （1.31 ±0.42）, and （0.84 ±0.08）, respectively. The plant community diversity index was the highest in the Yangtze River source, followed by that in the Lancang River source, and the lowest in the Yellow River source. The soil pH of the riparian zone of the Yangtze River source was significantly higher than that of the Lancang River source, whereas the mean contents of organic matter, total nitrogen, and Fe-Al combined phosphorus were significantly lower than those of the Lancang River source. The calcium and magnesium-combined phosphorus was the main form of phosphorus in riparian soil （63.89%）. Temperature, soil organic phosphorus content, and pH had significant effects on plant composition in the riparian zone of the Three-River Headwaters Region, whereas soil calcium and magnesium-combined phosphorus content had significant effects on plant community diversities. These results may deepen the scientific understanding of the evolution trend and genetic mechanism of plant communities in the riparian zone of the Three-River Headwaters Region.

Temporal and spatial evolution of net primary productivity in the Three-River Headwaters Region under phenological changes and anthropogenic influence.

Understanding the spatiotemporal changes in net primary productivity (NPP) and the driving factors behind these changes in climate-vulnerable regions is crucial for ecological conservation. This study simulates the actual NPP (NPPA) and climate potential NPP (NPPC) in the Three-River Headwaters Region from 2000 to 2020. The Theil-Sen Median method and Mann-Kendall mutation analyses are employed to explore their spatiotemporal variation patterns, while geographic weighted regression and machine learning are used to investigate the influence of anthropogenic activities and climatic factors on NPPA, the results indicate that the average NPPA across the entire region over multiple years is 382.506 g C m - 2 yr - 1 , which is 0.132 times the average annual NPPC over the past 21 years, showing an overall distribution pattern of low in the northwest and high in the southeast. The annual increase in NPPA from 2000 to 2020 is approximately 1.034 g C m - 2 yr - 1 . The source region of the Yangtze River shows the largest improvement in vegetation, with 74.1% of the area showing improvement. Between 2002 and 2003, the annual NPPA in the Three-River Headwaters Region experienced a sudden change, lagging behind the NPPC change by 1 year, and after 2005, the upward trend in NPPA became more pronounced. The impact of anthropogenic activities on NPPA shifted from positive to negative to positive from 2000 to 2020, with significant impact areas mainly concentrated in the northeast and a few areas in the central and southern parts. The proportion of areas with extremely significant impact increased from 1.9% in 2000 to 3.7% in 2020. Over the past 21 years, the main factors influencing NPPA changes in the Three-River Headwaters Region have been soil moisture and precipitation, with the influence of different climate factors on NPP changing over time. Additionally, NPP is more sensitive to changes in altitude in low-altitude areas. This study can provide more accurate theoretical support for ecological environment assessment and subsequent protection efforts in the Three-River Headwaters Region.

Primary driving factors of ecological environment system change based on directed weighted network illustrating with the Three-River Headwaters Region.

The primary driving factors of ecological environment change have received significant attention. However, previous research methods for identifying the main drivers of ecological environment change have primarily relied on correlation analysis and regression analysis. While these methods can reveal co-occurrences, associations, and correlations among elemental characteristics, they often struggle to uncover the deep-seated interactions among elements within complex, unstable, nonlinear, and high-dimensional systems. To address this, we used the Three-River Headwaters Region as a case study and introduced a complex network model from the perspective of the ecological environment system to investigate the main driving factors of ecological environment change. In our analysis, we considered 12 factors related to the atmosphere, hydrology, vegetation, and soil, including evaporation, long-wave radiation, short-wave radiation, specific humidity, soil temperature, precipitation rate, soil water content, air temperature, air pressure, vegetation normalization index, wind speed, and natural surface runoff. Watersheds were selected as the fundamental units for constructing ecological environment datasets. We applied the Ensemble Empirical Mode Decomposition (EEMD) method and Hilbert-Huang Transform (HHT) to analyze causal relationships between time series pairs and constructed two directed weighted network models based on sub-catchments. The results showed that both network models yielded consistent conclusions, with the sparse network exhibiting higher efficiency. Radiation and temperature were identified as the primary driving factors of ecosystem change, and the water cycle was determined to be the ultimate manifestation of ecological system change throughout the Three-River Headwaters Region. Furthermore, based on node out-strength, we generated a vegetation protection priority map.

Implications of headwater contact zones for the riverine barrier hypothesis: a case study of the Blue-capped Manakin (Lepidothrix coronata).

Rivers frequently delimit the geographic ranges of species in the Amazon Basin. These rivers also define the boundaries between genetic clusters within many species, yet river boundaries have been documented to break down in headwater regions where rivers are narrower. To explore the evolutionary implications of headwater contact zones in Amazonia, we examined genetic variation in the Blue-capped Manakin (Lepidothrix coronata), a species previously shown to contain several genetically and phenotypically distinct populations across the western Amazon Basin. We collected restriction site-associated DNA sequence data (RADcap) for 706 individuals and found that spatial patterns of genetic structure indicate several rivers, particularly the Amazon and Ucayali, are dispersal barriers for L. coronata. We also found evidence that genetic connectivity is elevated across several headwater regions, highlighting the importance of headwater gene flow for models of Amazonian diversification. The headwater region of the Ucayali River provided a notable exception to findings of headwater gene flow by harboring non-admixed populations of L. coronata on opposite sides of a < 1-km-wide river channel with a known dynamic history, suggesting that additional prezygotic barriers may be limiting gene flow in this region.

Genetic structure and relatedness of brown trout (Salmo trutta) populations in the drainage basin of the Ölfusá river, South-Western Iceland.

Background: Lake Þingvallavatn in Iceland, a part of the river Ölfusá drainage basin, was presumably populated by brown trout soon after it formed at the end of the last Ice Age. The genetic relatedness of the brown trout in Þingvallavatn to other populations in the Ölfusá drainage basin is unknown. After the building of a dam at the outlet of the lake in 1959 brown trout catches declined, though numbers have now increased. The aim of this study was to assess effects of geographic isolation and potential downstream gene flow on the genetic structure and diversity in brown trout sampled in several locations in the western side of the watershed of River Ölfusá. We hypothesized that brown trout in Lake Þingvallavatn constituted several local spawning populations connected by occasional gene flow before the damming of the lake. We also estimated the effective population size (NE) of some of these populations and tested for signs of a recent population bottleneck in Lake Þingvallavatn. Methods: We sampled brown trout inhabiting four lakes and 12 rivers within and near the watershed of River Ölfusá by means of electro- and net- fishing. After stringent data filtering, 2,597 polymorphic loci obtained from ddRADseq data from 317 individuals were ascertained as putative neutral markers. Results: Overall, the genetic relatedness of brown trout in the Ölfusá watershed reflected the connectivity and topography of the waterways. Ancestry proportion analyses and a phylogenetic tree revealed seven distinct clusters, some of which corresponded to small populations with reduced genetic diversity. There was no evidence of downstream gene flow from Lake Þingvallavatn, although gene flow was observed from much smaller mountain populations. Most locations showed low NE values (i.e., ~14.6 on average) while the putative anadromous trout from River Sog and the spawning population from River Öxará, that flows into Lake Þingvallavatn, showed notably higher NE values (i.e., 71.2 and 56.5, respectively). No signals of recent population bottlenecks were detected in the brown trout of Lake Þingvallavatn. Discussion: This is the first time that the genetic structure and diversity of brown trout in the watershed of River Ölfusá have been assessed. Our results point towards the presence of a metapopulation in the watershed of Lake Þingvallavatn, which has been influenced by restoration efforts and is now dominated by a genetic component originated in River Öxará. Many of the locations studied represent different populations. Those that are isolated in headwater streams and lakes are genetically distinct presenting low genetic diversity, yet they can be important in increasing the genetic variation in downstream populations. These populations should be considered for conservation and direct management.

Biogeochemical Processes and Microbial Dynamics Governing Phosphorus Retention and Release in Sediments: A Case Study in Lower Great Lakes Headwaters.

The ability of headwater bed and suspended sediments to mitigate non-point agricultural phosphorus (P) loads to the lower Great Lakes is recognized, but the specific biogeochemical processes promoting sediment P retention or internal P release remain poorly understood. To elucidate these mechanisms, three headwater segments located within priority watersheds of Southern Ontario, Canada, were sampled through the growing season of 2018-2020. The study employed equilibrium P assays along with novel assessments of legacy watershed nutrients, nitrogen (N) concentrations, sediment redox, and microbial community composition. 20-year data revealed elevated total P (TP) and total Nitrogen (TN) at an inorganic fertilizer and manure fertilizer-impacted site, respectively. Overall, sampled sites acted as P sinks; however, agricultural sediments exhibited significantly lower buffering capacity compared to a reference forested watershed. Collection of fine suspended sediment (<63 µm) through time-integrated sampling showed the suspended load at the inorganic-fertilized site was saturated with P, indicating a greater potential for P release into surface waters compared to bed sediments. Through vertical microsensor profiling and DNA sequencing of the sediment microbial community, site-specific factors associated with a distinct P-source event were identified. These included rapid depletion of dissolved oxygen (DO) across the sediment water interface (SWI), as well as the presence of nitrate-reducing bacterial and ammonia-oxidizing archaeal (AOA) genera. This research provides valuable insights into the dynamics of P in headwaters, shedding light on P retention and release. Understanding these processes is crucial for effective management strategies aimed at mitigating P pollution to the lower Great Lakes.

Dynamic Response and Adaptation of Grassland Ecosystems in the Three-River Headwaters Region under Changing Environment: A Review.

The Three-River Headwaters Region (TRHR) is crucial to the sustainable development of China and Southeast Asia. The sustainability of grassland ecosystems in the region has been seriously challenged in recent years. This paper reviewed the changes in the grasslands of the TRHR and their responses to climate change and human activities. The review showed that accurate monitoring of grassland ecological information is the basis for effective management. Although alpine grassland coverage and the above-ground biomass of the alpine grassland have generally increased in the region over the past 30 years, the degradation has not been fundamentally curbed. Grassland degradation substantially reduced topsoil nutrients and affected their distribution, deteriorated soil moisture conditions, and aggravated soil erosion. Grassland degradation led to loss of productivity and species diversity, and this is already harming the well-being of pastoralists. The "warm and wet" trend of the climate promoted the restoration of alpine grasslands, but widespread overgrazing is considered as one of the main reasons for grassland degradation, and related differences still exist. Since 2000, the grassland restoration policy has achieved fruitful results, but the formulation of the policy still needs to integrate market logic effectively and strengthen the understanding of the relationship between ecological protection and cultural protection. In addition, appropriate human intervention mechanisms are urgently needed due to the uncertainty of future climate change. For mildly and moderately degraded grassland, traditional methods are applicable. However, the severely degraded "black soil beach" needs to be restored by artificial seeding, and the stability of the plant-soil system needs to be emphasized to establish a relatively stable community to prevent secondary degradation.

[Horizontal Variation Characteristics of Alpine Grassland Soil Function and Vertical Changes Along Soil Genetic Horizons in the Three-River Headwaters Region].

The Three-River Headwaters region is a hotspot for studying the response of soil function to climate change. To study the horizontal variation characteristics of alpine grassland soil function and vertical changes along soil genetic horizons, soil functional indicators (including respiration, nitrogen conversion rate, and enzymatic activity) of different genetic horizons in alpine grassland soil profiles and their correlations with environmental factors were analyzed. The results showed that there were no significant differences in soil functional characteristics between alpine meadows and steppes, and topsoil had higher respiration rates, nitrogen conversion rates, and enzymatic activities than those of subsoil. Total nitrogen was a key driver of soil functional characteristics in different genetic horizons, explaining 18.3%, 21.4%, and 27.5% of the horizontal variation in functional characteristics, respectively. Climate and vegetation factors mainly affected soil function indirectly by changing soil physicochemical properties in topsoil, but atmospheric nitrogen deposition still affected soil function in subsoil. These results indicate the significant nitrogen limitation of alpine grassland soil in the Three-River Headwaters region, and the findings provide a new insight into the maintenance of soil functional diversity and the response to climate change in the context of global climate change.

Grass-microbial inter-domain ecological networks associated with alpine grassland productivity.

Associations between grasses and soil microorganisms can strongly influence plant community structures. However, the associations between grass productivity and diversity and soil microbes, as well as the patterns of co-occurrence between grass and microbes remain unclear. Here, we surveyed grass productivity and diversity, determined soil physicochemical, and sequenced soil archaea, bacteria and fungi by metabarcoding technology at 16 alpine grasslands. Using the Distance-decay relationship, Inter-Domain Ecological Network (IDEN), and Mantel tests, we investigated the relationship between grass productivity, diversity and microbial diversity, and the patterns of co-occurrence between grass and microbial inter-domain network in alpine grassland. We found the archaea richness, bacteria richness and Shannon, and fungi α-diversity were significantly negatively correlation with grass diversity, but archaea and bacteria diversity were positively correlation with grass productivity. Moreover, an increase in microbial ß-diversity was observed along with increased discrepancy in grass diversity and productivity and soil variables. Variance partitioning analysis suggested that the contribution of grass productivity on microbial community was higher than that of soil variables and grass diversity, which implies that microbial community was more related to grass productivity. Inter-Domain Ecological Network showed that the grass species formed complex and stable ecological networks with some bacterial, archaeal, and fungal species, and the grass-fungal ecological networks showed the highest robustness, which indicated that soil fungi could better co-coexist with aboveground grass in alpine grasslands. Besides, the connectivity degrees of the grass-microbial network were significantly positively correlated with grass productivity, suggesting that the coexistence pattern of grasses and microbes had a positive feedback effect on the grass productivity. The results are important for establishing the regulatory mechanisms between plants and microorganisms in alpine grassland ecosystems.

Cumulative ecosystem response to Hydraulic Engineering Infrastructure Projects in an arid basin.

Hydraulic Engineering Infrastructure Projects (HEIPs) typically show profound effects on hydrological systems and ecosystems. However, data restrictions have limited the exploration of the influences of compound HEIPs on ecosystems to a few studies. This study proposes a watershed-wide ecosystem assessment framework to investigate the impact of HEIPs in the Tarim River Headwaters-Hotan River Basin on the ecosystem of the arid zone. The framework includes a deep learning-meta cellular automata algorithm (DLMCAA) based on the spatiotemporal characteristics of HEIPs and hydro-meteorological and human activities. Moreover, the spatiotemporal relationships between compound HEIPs and ecosystem variances were quantified. The framework including DLMCAA showed a good performance in simulating landcover in 2020, with a Kappa coefficient of 0.89. Therefore, the DLMCAA could be used to simulate and predict ecosystem changes under the HEIPs, which suggested that the framework is effective and practical. An analysis of the spatiotemporal distribution of each ecosystem from 1980 to 2020 showed that the low shrub ecosystems changed most significantly (26.38 %) between 1980 and 2020. Also, the use of spatially driven hydrological project data from different ABC scenarios showed that ecosystems driven by HEIPs were more stable compared to those without HEIPs under future climate change. In particular, the DLMCAA indicated that compound HEIPs had a more positive impact on ecosystem oases in arid lands compared with that of single HEIPs. The results of this study can serve as a scientific reference for assessing the impact of HEIPs, as well as for understanding ecosystem changes and facilitating sustainable water resource management in the arid regions.

Too much, too soon? Two Swedish case studies of short-term deadwood recruitment in riparian buffers.

Forested riparian buffers are retained along streams during forest harvest to maintain a number of ecological functions. In this paper, we examine how recently established riparian buffers along northern Swedish streams provide deadwood, a key objective for riparian buffer management in Sweden. We used observational and experimental data to show that the investigated buffers provided large volumes of deadwood to streams and riparian zones shortly after their establishment, likely jeopardizing continued recruitment over the long term. Deadwood volume decreased with increasing buffer width, and the narrowest buffers tended to blow down completely. Wider buffers (~ 15 m) provided similar volumes of deadwood as narrow buffers due to blowdowns but were, overall, more resistant to wind-felling. It is clear from our study, that wider buffers are currently a safer strategy for riparian management that aims to sustain provision of deadwood and other ecological objectives continuously on the long term.

Ichthyofauna of the Nascentes do Rio Parnaíba National Park: watershed divide in the main agricultural encroachment area in the Brazilian Cerrado / Ictiofauna do Parque Nacional Nascentes do Rio Parnaíba: um divisor de bacias hidrográficas na principal área de expansão agrícola do Cerrado Brasileiro

The Nascentes do Rio Parnaíba National Park (NPNP), located in Brazilian Cerrado, protects portions of three river basins: headwaters of Parnaíba, a small portion in upper Tocantins-Araguaia, and tributaries of the middle section of the São Francisco. This protected area is in the boundaries of the states of Maranhão, Tocantins, Piauí, and Bahia, also known as MATOPIBA, a region that has established rapid agricultural expansion associated to land conflicts between corporate agriculture, family agriculture, protected areas, indigenous territories, and quilombola communities. The knowledge of the ichthyofauna in this region is scarce while the impacts on the aquatic environments are increasing. We made a survey of fishes in the NPNP and its surroundings areas, estimating richness, endemics, introduced and shared species between river basins. During 2014, 54 sampling sites were visited, 19 in the NPNP and 35 in the surrounding area. Ninety-five species, 51 genera, 22 families, and six orders were recorded, of which 38 (40%) are in the NPNP. One introduced species were recorded in the Parnaíba River basin and no endangered species were registered. Our data corroborate the importance of the network of protected areas for the preservation of Cerrado fishes, including some possibly undescribed and restricted-range species that may be threatened due to intense agricultural encroachment in the MATOPIBA region.

O Parque Nacional Nascentes do Rio Parnaíba (PNNP), localizado no Cerrado brasileiro, protege diferentes porções de três bacias hidrográficas, as cabeceiras do Parnaíba, uma pequena porção do alto rio Tocantins e tributários do trecho médio do São Francisco. Esta área protegida está localizada nos limites dos estados do Maranhão, Tocantins, Piauí e Bahia, também conhecida como MATOPIBA, região que tem apresentado rápida expansão agrícola associada a conflitos fundiários do agronegócio com agricultura familiar, áreas protegidas, territórios indígenas e comunidades quilombolas. O conhecimento da ictiofauna nessas regiões é escasso, embora os impactos sobre os ecossistemas aquáticos sejam crescentes. Assim, elaboramos um levantamento de peixes do PNNP e em seu entorno, identificando a riqueza, espécies endêmicas, introduzidas e compartilhadas entre bacias hidrográficas. Durante o ano de 2014 foram visitados 54 locais de amostragem, 19 no PNNP e 35 no entorno. Foram coletadas 95 espécies, 51 gêneros, 22 famílias e seis ordens, das quais 38 espécies (40%) estão no PNNP. Uma espécie introduzida foi registrada na bacia do rio Parnaíba e nenhuma espécie ameaçada de extinção foi registrada. Os dados aqui apresentados corroboram a importância da rede de áreas protegidas para a preservação dos peixes do Cerrado, com espécies potencialmente novas e de distribuição restrita, que podem estar ameaçadas devido à intensa expansão agrícola na região do MATOPIBA.

Optimization of management by analyzing ecosystem service value variations in different watersheds in the Three-River Headwaters Basin.

Variation analysis of ecosystem services (ESs) is an important means of regional watershed management, especially for the ecologically fragile Three-River Headwaters Basin (TRHB), which is an important part of the national ecological security barrier. In this study, meteorological data, remote sensing images and land use data from 2000 to 2020 in the TRHB were collected. Based on the estimation of ecosystem service values (ESVs), the spatial-temporal variations of ESVs in the three watersheds were analyzed via spatial autocorrelation analysis, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), and correspondence analysis. The study indicates that for the 20-year changes in the TRHB, the provisioning service (PS) and regulating service (RS) increased in most areas except for a small decrease in the northwest, while the supporting service (SS) value in most areas in the southwest showed a decreasing trend. Through the difference results of different watersheds, it can be seen that the differences in the PS and RS values among the three watersheds became increasingly more significant with the passage of time. Moreover, a significant correspondence was identified between each watershed and each ESV level, whereby the highest ESV levels (SS-VI, RS-VI, and PS-VI) mainly corresponded to the Yellow River watershed, the high values (SS-V, RS-V, PS-V, SS-IV, RS-IV, and PS-IV) mainly corresponded to the Lancang River watershed, and the low values (SS-I, RS-I, and PS-I) corresponded to the Yangtze River watershed. Our analysis shows the variation characteristics of ESVs to provide a guiding basis for ensuring the precise implementation of the management and protection of watersheds in the TRHB or similar areas.

Livelihood resilience in pastoral communities: Methodological and field insights from Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau.

Livelihood resilience is crucial for both people and the environment, especially in remote and harsh ecosystems, such as the Qinghai Tibetan Plateau (QTP). This research aimed to fill the gap of assessing herders' livelihood resilience using more inclusive method. Using survey data from 758 pastoralists, complemented with focus group discussions and transect walks in the Three River Headwater Region (TRHR) on the QTP, we first developed a livelihood resilience evaluation index comprising dimensions of buffer capacity, self-organization and learning capacity. The method of entropy-TOPSIS was then applied to assess the livelihood resilience of local herders, and the spatial patterns were analyzed by spatial autocorrelation method. The results showed the overall level of pastoral livelihood resilience resulted weak, with an east to west spatial gradient toward lower livelihood resilience. Self-organization was the most important dimensions of livelihood resilience, with social cohesion being a dominant factor. Buffer capacity resulted the less important, but the natural capital was significantly higher than the other four livelihood capitals. Furthermore, the northeastern region was a hotspot, while the northwestern region was a cold spot of livelihood resilience. While pastoral populations in the TRHR had high self-organization abilities and potentially high learning capacities, the overall low buffer capacity and livelihood capital limited the improvement of their livelihood resilience. The key findings provide support for enabling policies and integrated strategies to enhance social-ecological resilience. Study may help as paradigm shift reference for the livelihood resilience of pastoral communities in high-altitude areas globally.

Headwater streams and inland wetlands: Status and advancements of geospatial datasets and maps across the United States.

Headwater streams and inland wetlands provide essential functions that support healthy watersheds and downstream waters. However, scientists and aquatic resource managers lack a comprehensive synthesis of national and state stream and wetland geospatial datasets and emerging technologies that can further improve these data. We conducted a review of existing United States (US) federal and state stream and wetland geospatial datasets, focusing on their spatial extent, permanence classifications, and current limitations. We also examined recent peer-reviewed literature for emerging methods that can potentially improve the estimation, representation, and integration of stream and wetland datasets. We found that federal and state datasets rely heavily on the US Geological Survey's National Hydrography Dataset for stream extent and duration information. Only eleven states (22%) had additional stream extent information and seven states (14%) provided additional duration information. Likewise, federal and state wetland datasets primarily use the US Fish and Wildlife Service's National Wetlands Inventory (NWI) Geospatial Dataset, with only two states using non-NWI datasets. Our synthesis revealed that LiDAR-based technologies hold promise for advancing stream and wetland mapping at limited spatial extents. While machine learning techniques may help to scale-up these LiDAR-derived estimates, challenges related to preprocessing and data workflows remain. High-resolution commercial imagery, supported by public imagery and cloud computing, may further aid characterization of the spatial and temporal dynamics of streams and wetlands, especially using multi-platform and multi-temporal machine learning approaches. Models integrating both stream and wetland dynamics are limited, and field-based efforts must remain a key component in developing improved headwater stream and wetland datasets. Continued financial and partnership support of existing databases is also needed to enhance mapping and inform water resources research and policy decisions.

Effect of climate and ecological restoration on vegetation changes in the "Three-River Headwaters" region based on remote sensing technology.

Surface temperature and precipitation are factors effecting vegetation growth. Vegetation coverage change is one of the important factors influencing global and regional climate change. Dynamic monitoring of vegetation change can reflect the trend of climate change to a certain extent. Three-River Headwaters are located in the hinterland of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. It has the characteristics of "high, cold, and dry" (higher altitude, cold and dry weather) and its ecosystem is fragile. In recent years, with the global climate change, a series of eco-environmental problems such as river flow cutoff, permafrost degradation, and vegetation destruction has occurred in the headwaters area, which are closely related to climate and vegetation changes. At the same time, in order to solve the problem of ecological environment degradation in the region, various ecological restoration policies have implemented. Several uncertainties in the relationship between vegetation and climate change in the Three-River Headwaters region. This study aims to find out the uncertainties. In this study, the spatial distribution of vegetation coverage was calculated by using NDVI (normalized difference vegetation index) from the first-level product of MODIS (moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer) remote sensing data. Combining policy factors, the relationship between rainfall, surface temperature, and vegetation growth status were analyzed. The results show that during the study period (1948-2019), the temperature rose significantly and the rainfall increased especially after the implementation of ecological restoration policy (after 2000). Vegetation coverage increased year-by-year (2000-2015). The rainfall effect on surface temperature and vegetation growth, when the summer rainfall increased, the temperature decreased, leads to vegetation coverage decreased (for example, 2001, 2003, 2008 and 2011); the dependence of vegetation on rainfall has obvious lag in Three-River Headwaters in summer. In the years with suitable rainfall and higher temperature in summer, the vegetation grows better and the vegetation coverage increases. This is mainly because the Three-River Headwaters is located in the alpine zone, and vegetation growth is more dependent on temperature. The implementation of ecological restoration policy promotes vegetation coverage. Studying the impact of climate and policy factors on vegetation cover is of great scientific significance and practical value for understanding the ecological restoration mechanism in high cold and arid regions.

Occurrence of arsenite in surface and groundwater associated with a perennial stream located in Western Nebraska, USA.

Dissolved arsenic typically results from chemical weathering of arsenic rich sediments and is most often found in oxidized forms in surface water. The mobility of arsenic is controlled by its valence state and also by its association with iron oxides minerals, the forms of which are both influenced by abiotic and biotic processes in aqueous environment. In this study, speciation methods were used to measure and confirm the presence of reduced arsenic species in the surface water of Frenchman creek, a gaining stream that crosses the Colorado-Nebraska border. Selective extraction analysis of aquifer and stream bed sediments shows that the bulk of the arsenic occurs with labile iron-rich oxy(hydroxide) minerals. Total dissolved arsenic in surface and groundwater ranged from ~3-18 µg L-1, and reduced arsenic species comprise about 41% of the total dissolved arsenic (16.0 µg L-1) in Frenchman creek. Leachable arsenic in the aquifer sediment samples ranged up to 1553 µg kg-1, while samples from Frenchman creek bed sediments contained 4218 µg kg-1. Dynamic surface and groundwater interaction sustains arsenite in iron-rich surface headwaters, and the implied toxicity of reduced arsenic in this hydrogeological setting, which can be important in surface water environments around the globe.

Synchronous evaporation and aquatic primary production in tropical river networks.

Rivers play an important role in global water and carbon cycling, but there are still large uncertainties concerning evaporation and aquatic photosynthesis. Here we combined measurements of water chemistry, isotopic compositions (i.e., δDw, δ18Ow, δ13CDIC and ▵14CDIC) and geographic characteristics (i.e., river width) to elucidate in-stream hydrological and biogeochemical processes across rivers in Hainan Island, China. The results showed that dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) in river waters was largely of modern origin, with about 95% from contemporary biogenic sources based on an isotopic mass balance of ▵14CDIC. Significant evaporation and aquatic primary production co-occurred in these tropical rivers with large amounts of water and DIC being rapidly turned over in the water column, altering the water cycle and the carbon balance. High rates of evaporation and aquatic primary production were observed in the headwater segments, with narrow river width but broad available reactive surface area at the air-water interface. The asymmetric aquatic photosynthesis at different river segments caused the spatial heterogeneities of dissolved solutes. The results suggest that the available reactive area at the water-air interface is responsible for synchronous water loss and dissolved carbon evolution in flat tropical rivers. This study provides evidence that intense evaporation and aquatic photosynthesis mainly occurred in headwater segments, which has implications for understanding global carbon cycling.

A landscape assessment and associated dataset of stream confluences for the conterminous U.S.

Stream confluences are important components of fluvial networks. Hydraulic forces meeting at stream confluences often produce changes in streambed morphology and sediment distribution. These changes often increase habitat heterogeneity relative to upstream and downstream locations, which have led some to identify them as biological hotspots. Despite their potential ecological importance, there are relatively few empirical studies documenting ecological patterns upstream and downstream of confluences. We have produced a publicly available dataset of stream confluences and associated watershed attributes for the conterminous USA. The dataset includes 1,085,629 stream confluences and 383 attributes for each confluence organized into 15 dataset tables for both tributary and mainstem upstream catchments and watersheds. Themes in the dataset include hydrology (e.g., stream order), land cover, land cover change, geology (e.g., calcium content of underlying lithosphere), physical condition (e.g., precipitation), measures of ecological integrity, and stressors (e.g., impaired streams). Additionally, we used measures of ecological integrity to assess the condition of the stream confluences. Aside from a generally positive east-to-west gradient in ecological condition, we found that approximately one-third of the confluences had markedly contrasting ecological conditions between mainstem and tributary, catchment and watershed, or both. The dataset should support many, multifaceted studies of stream confluence ecology.