Low Self-Esteem, High FOMO? The Other Side of the Internet Troll.

The present study aimed to observe the impact of self-esteem and FOMO on online trolling, investigating the mediating role of antisocial online content exposure. A total of 300 social media users (27.68 years, SD = 7.15, SE = .41) participated in the study. Data analysis showed statistically significant model-fit indices (CFI = .99, GFI = .98, TLI = .98, RMSEA = .02 | 90% CI .01-.03|, SRMR = .04) to the mediation model: both self-esteem (direct effects: λ = -0.17, p < .01, indirect effects: λ = -.06, p < .05) and FOMO (direct effects: λ = .19, p < .01, indirect effects: λ = .07, p < .01) were related to online trolling, both directly and indirectly, trough antisocial online content exposure. It is possible to conclude that the objective was achieved, highlighting the importance of both personal factors and contextual characteristics of the internet in the perpetuation of online aggression.

The link between exposure to violent media, normative beliefs about aggression, self-control, and aggression: A comparison of traditional and cyberbullying.

Adolescence is a high-risk age for exposure to violent media (EVM) and bullying. Some previous theories and empirical studies have highlighted a moderated mediating model that normative beliefs about aggression (NBA) as a mediator and self-control (SC) as a moderator for the link between EVM and aggressive behaviors (including bullying behaviors). However, most previous studies analyzed traditional bullying (TB) and cyberbullying (CB) separately, which is not conducive to finding the differences between the two bullying behaviors. Therefore, this study aims to compare the differences between risk prediction models of TB and CB among adolescents. A total of 777 Chinese adolescent students (336 girls; Mage = 13.57 ± 0.98) completed questionnaires including EVM, NBA, TB, CB, and SC. The results showed that: (1) EVM was positively related to adolescent TB/CB; (2) NBA mediated the above relations; and (3) SC buffers the direct effect of EVM on TB and the effect of NBA on TB. However, SC buffers the effect of NBA on adolescent CB but not buffers the direct effect of EVM on CB. This study highlights the necessity of distinguishing offline and online situations in aggressive behavior research. We suggested "online disinhibit hypothesis" would be adopted to explain why protector factors (e.g., SC) do not buffer the link between aggression-related risk factors (e.g., EVM) and online aggression (e.g., CB).

Online Trolling: The Impact of Antisocial Online Content, Social Media Use, and Gender.

The present study aimed to observe the relationships between online trolling, exposure to antisocial online content, frequency of social media use, and gender, using the GAM as a theoretical framework. Four hundred twenty-nine Brazilian internet users (mean = 25.07 years; SD = 7.59; EP = 0.36), most of whom were women (71.8%), participated in the survey. Bivariate correlations indicated a positive relationship between online trolling, exposure to antisocial online content (r = 0.12; p < 0.01), Facebook use (r = 0.21; p < 0.01), Twitter Use (r = 0.12; p < 0.01), and gender (r = 0.15; p < 0.01). An explanatory model including these variables was tested, and obtained a significant model fit (GFI = 0.99; Comparative Fit-Index = 0.99; Tucker Lewis Index = 0.97; Root Mean Square Residual = 0.02; RMSEA = 0.02 | CI = 0 .01-0.07 |). Were also observed indirect effects for exposure to antisocial online content through Twitter use and Facebook use on trolling (λ = 0.03; CI = 0.01-0.05; p < 0.05). It is possible to conclude that the research objectives were fulfilled, emphasizing the role of situational variables in the understanding of online trolling.

Violent Media in Childhood and Seriously Violent Behavior in Adolescence and Young Adulthood.

PURPOSE: To quantify the relative odds of self-reported seriously violent behavior in adolescence and young adulthood given one's self-reported violent media diet in childhood. METHODS: Baseline data were collected nationally online from 1,586 youth 10-15 years of age in 2006. Follow-up data were collected in 2010-2011 and 2016. Children reported the amount of music, video games, television, websites with real people, and cartoons that depicted "physical fighting, hurting, shooting, or killing." Seriously violent behavior was assessed 5 and 10 years later. RESULTS: 887 adolescents completed the survey at baseline and 5-year follow-up. The relative odds of reporting seriously violent behavior over time were 2.45-fold higher (p < .001) with each incremental increase in one's baseline violent media diet. After adjusting for other potentially influential characteristics, results persisted (aOR = 1.70, p = .01). The relative odds also were elevated for those frequently exposed to violence in music (aOR = 3.28, p = .03), television (aOR = 3.51, p < .001), and video games (aOR = 3.27, p = .02). 760 young adults completed measures at baseline and 10-year follow-up. The relative odds of seriously violent behavior increased 2.18-fold (p = .001) with each incremental increase in one's baseline violent media diet. After adjusting for other factors, the association persisted (aOR = 1.72, p = .03). Frequent exposure to violence in video games (aOR = 3.28, p = .03) and television (aOR = 3.14, p = .02) also were implicated. DISCUSSION: Exposure to violent media in childhood may be one modifiable influence on seriously violent behavior in adolescence and adulthood, even for those who have other risk factors.

"Death and Love Amid the COVID-19 Pandemic": Effects of Pathogen Threats on Online Dating and Social Distancing From Life-History Strategy Perspectives.

Drawing from the terror management theory (TMT) and evolutionary perspectives of Life-History Strategy, a between-subject online experiment examined the interaction effects of pre-existing death anxiety, fear-inducing media content (coronavirus threat vs. gun violence threat vs. low threat mental disorder), and intrasexual competition for mates on online dating intentions and social distancing intentions during the COVID-19 pandemic. Results indicate the interaction effects of participants' pre-experimental death anxiety and different types of fear-inducing media content on perceived fear and intention to use online dating websites/apps as well as the interaction effects of pre-experimental intrasexual competitiveness and fear-inducing media content on social distancing intention in the context of online dating. Theoretical contributions to the terror management literature and practical implications for the online dating industry are discussed.

Violent media use and aggression: Two longitudinal network studies.

Exposure to violent media has been widely linked to increased aggression. In the present research, we examined whether violent media exposure would be associated with increased aggression, which would then spread within social networks like a contagious disease. Two groups of first year psychology students completed a questionnaire three times over the course of a year, measuring their media exposure, aggression, personality, and social relations within the group. Cross-sectional analysis provided mixed results in regards to the link between violent media and aggression. Siena analysis found no evidence of homophily (i.e., participants were not more likely to be friends with others similar to themselves) nor of social influence (i.e., participant's behavior did not predict a change in their friends' behavior). However, given the relatively small sample sizes and the weak ties between participants, more work is needed to assess the spread of violent media effects.

ADHD symptoms and callous-unemotional traits as predictors of violent media use in adolescence.

We investigated ADHD symptoms and CU traits as predictors of violent media use in adolescence, controlling for delinquency and ODD symptoms. The effects on of disinhibition and arousal to negative stimuli, core characteristics of ADHD symptoms and CU traits, and of gender were investigated. At age 15, 88 adolescents, 50 % boys reported on CU traits, ADHD symptoms and delinquency. Parents rated the adolescents' CU traits, ADHD- and ODD symptoms. At age 16, adolescents reported on their media habits and performed tests of disinhibition and arousal to negative stimuli. Boys had higher levels of CU traits and violent media use and girls had higher levels of arousal to negative pictures. CU traits and inattention symptoms predicted violent media use, the latter association applying only to boys, with CU traits being the strongest predictor. Low arousal to threat pictures explained variance in violent media use, above CU traits. Attraction to violent media seems affected by problem behaviors, with CU traits coming forth as especially important.

Implicit violent imagery processing among fans and non-fans of music with violent themes.

It is suggested that long-term exposure to violent media may decrease sensitivity to depictions of violence. However, it is unknown whether persistent exposure to music with violent themes affects implicit violent imagery processing. Using a binocular rivalry paradigm, we investigated whether the presence of violent music influences conscious awareness of violent imagery among fans and non-fans of such music. Thirty-two fans and 48 non-fans participated in the study. Violent and neutral pictures were simultaneously presented one to each eye, and participants indicated which picture they perceived (i.e. violent percept, neutral percept or blend of two) via key presses, while they heard Western popular music with lyrics that expressed happiness or Western extreme metal music with lyrics that expressed violence. We found both fans and non-fans of violent music exhibited a general negativity bias for violent imagery over neutral imagery regardless of the music genres. For non-fans, this bias was stronger while listening to music that expressed violence than while listening to music that expressed happiness. For fans of violent music, however, the bias was the same while listening to music that expressed either violence or happiness. We discussed these results in view of current debates on the impact of violent media.

The Impacts of Sexual Media Exposure on Adolescent and Emerging Adults' Dating and Sexual Violence Attitudes and Behaviors: A Critical Review of the Literature.

Dating violence (DV) and sexual violence (SV) are widespread problems among adolescents and emerging adults. A growing body of literature demonstrates that exposure to sexually explicit media (SEM) and sexually violent media (SVM) may be risk factors for DV and SV. The purpose of this article is to provide a systematic and comprehensive literature review on the impact of exposure to SEM and SVM on DV and SV attitudes and behaviors. A total of 43 studies utilizing adolescent and emerging adult samples were reviewed, and collectively the findings suggest that (1) exposure to SEM and SVM is positively related to DV and SV myths and more accepting attitudes toward DV and SV; (2) exposure to SEM and SVM is positively related to actual and anticipated DV and SV victimization, perpetration, and bystander nonintervention; (3) SEM and SVM more strongly impact men's DV and SV attitudes and behaviors than women's DV and SV attitudes and behaviors; and (4) preexisting attitudes related to DV and SV and media preferences moderate the relationship between SEM and SVM exposure and DV and SV attitudes and behaviors. Future studies should strive to employ longitudinal and experimental designs, more closely examine the mediators and moderators of SEM and SVM exposure on DV and SV outcomes, focus on the impacts of SEM and SVM that extend beyond men's use of violence against women, and examine the extent to which media literacy programs could be used independently or in conjunction with existing DV and SV prevention programs to enhance effectiveness of these programming efforts.

Selling violent video game solutions: A look inside the APA's internal notes leading to the creation of the APA's 2005 resolution on violence in video games and interactive media.

For decades politicians, parent groups, researchers, media outlets, professionals in various fields, and laymen have debated the effects playing violent video games have on children and adolescents. In academia, there also exists a divide as to whether violent video games cause children and adolescents to be aggressive, violent, and even engage in criminal behavior. Given inconsistencies in the data, it may be important to understand the ways and the reasons why professional organizations take a stance on the violent video game effects debate which may reflect greater expressed certitude than data can support. This piece focuses on the American Psychological Association's internal communications leading to the creation of their 2005 Resolution on Violence in Video Games and Interactive Media. These communications reveal that in this case, the APA attempted to "sell" itself as a solution to the perceived violent video game problem. The actions leading to the 2005 resolution are then compared to the actions of the APA's 2013-2015 Task Force on Violent Media. The implications and problems associated with the APA's actions regarding violent video games are addressed and discussed below.

Violent media exposure, aggression and CU traits in adolescence: Testing the selection and socialization hypotheses.

We investigated the role of exposure to violent action for later aggression and for later callous-unemotional traits in a sample of Swedish adolescents (N = 77-85), testing the selection and socialization hypotheses. Adolescents reported on violent delinquency and on callous-unemotional (CU) traits at age 15, on their media habits at age 16 and on reactive and proactive aggression and CU traits at age 18. The socialization hypothesis was supported with regard to aggression, that is, violent delinquency did not affect consumption of violent action, but controlling for violent delinquency, consumption of violent action added to proactive aggression and, marginally, to reactive aggression. The selection hypothesis was supported with regard to CU traits, that is, high levels of CU traits predicted frequent consumption of violent action, but consumption of violent action did not affect later levels of CU traits. Frequent violent media use was associated with later aggression. The associations between CU traits and violent media need further study.

Violent media and hostile appraisals: A meta-analytic review.

Hostile people tend to view the world as a hostile place. Although there are individual differences in hostile world-views, situational factors can also play a role. For example, scenes of violence in the mass media might influence people to view the world as a hostile place. This meta-analysis aggregates, for the first time, all studies that have investigated the link between exposure to violent media and hostile appraisals (e.g., perceiving the ambiguous actions by others as aggressive actions). This meta-analysis included 37 independent studies involving 10,410 participants. The results showed a "small" to "moderate" sized average correlation between exposure to violent media and hostile appraisals (r+ = .20, 95%CI = .14, .26). Significant correlations were found in experimental, cross-sectional, and longitudinal studies, indicating a triangulation of evidence. Effects were not correlated with participant gender. Effects were also stable over time. However, the link between exposure to violent media and hostile appraisals was positively related to age, perhaps because violent media can have cumulative effects over time. There was no evidence of publication bias. The findings from this meta-analysis are consistent with the General Aggression Model (e.g., Anderson, & Bushman, 2002; Annual Review of Psychology 53:27-51). These results compliment those from previous meta-analyses showing that violent media can increase aggressive thoughts, angry feelings, physiological arousal, and aggressive behavior. These findings also have practical significance, because people who view the world in a hostile manner are more likely to behave aggressively themselves. Aggr. Behav. 42:605-613, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Long-term relations among prosocial-media use, empathy, and prosocial behavior.

Despite recent growth of research on the effects of prosocial media, processes underlying these effects are not well understood. Two studies explored theoretically relevant mediators and moderators of the effects of prosocial media on helping. Study 1 examined associations among prosocial- and violent-media use, empathy, and helping in samples from seven countries. Prosocial-media use was positively associated with helping. This effect was mediated by empathy and was similar across cultures. Study 2 explored longitudinal relations among prosocial-video-game use, violent-video-game use, empathy, and helping in a large sample of Singaporean children and adolescents measured three times across 2 years. Path analyses showed significant longitudinal effects of prosocial- and violent-video-game use on prosocial behavior through empathy. Latent-growth-curve modeling for the 2-year period revealed that change in video-game use significantly affected change in helping, and that this relationship was mediated by change in empathy.