A Comparative Study of Cognitive and Motor Performance in Liver Recipients.

Introduction: Neurocognitive and motor impairments are often observed both before and after liver transplantation, resulting in inefficiencies in dual-task performance. Specific aim: The aim of this study was to evaluate the motor-cognitive dual-task performance in liver recipients, with a particular emphasis on cognition, performance status, and the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. Design: A prospective, cross-sectional, web-based design with a control group was used. The study included 22 liver transplant recipients and 23 controls. Participants completed a motor-cognitive dual-task test (timed up and go test, TUG), a cognitive assessment (mini mental state examination), and a physical performance test (5-repetition sit-to-stand test). The study also used a functional performance status scale (The Karnofsky performance status) and assessed fear of coronavirus disease (fear of COVID-19 scale). Dual-task interference was assessed and the rate of correct responses per second was calculated to assess cognitive performance. Results: The results indicated no statistically significant difference in TUG time and TUG correct responses per second between the groups (group × condition interactions; P > 0.05). There was no significant difference in cognitive and motor dual-task interference during the TUG test between the two groups (P > 0.05). The Karnofsky Performance Status score was significantly correlated with TUG motor dual-task interference (r = -0.424 and P = 0.049). Conclusion: This study suggests that dual-task performance does not differ in cognitive or motor performance between liver recipients and healthy controls under the same dual-task condition. However, further controlled studies are needed to improve the generalizability of these findings.

Presentation of multiple task instructional sets impacts auditory Stroop performance during dual task locomotion.

The auditory Stroop is a modification of the classic Stroop paradigm commonly used in dual-task research when the motor task requires the visual system. Despite its use, there are gaps in our understanding of this tool. For example, in visual/auditory Stroop paradigms, neutral cues irrelevant to the required response, which theoretically cause less interference/facilitation, are used to elucidate effects of visual/auditory demands on neural processes. Specifically, in auditory Stroop paradigms the use and choice of neutral cue words is inconsistent. To address these gaps, we instrumented participants with kinematic markers and a digital microphone and asked them to respond to auditory Stroop cues and neutral cue words consisting of either one or two syllables, while simultaneously performing an unobstructed locomotor task. Two blocks of trials were collected. In one block, participants had prior knowledge that either an auditory Stroop or a neutral word stimulus would be presented (Known); a second block presented both types of cognitive cues in a random order to participants (Mixed). We observed main effects of cognitive task (neutral, incongruent, congruent) and instructional set (Known, Mixed) on response times, but not on center of mass velocity. Also, more time was required to verbally respond to an incongruent compared to congruent or neutral task across all conditions, and neutral task words with one syllable resulted in longer response times compared to two syllable neutral words. We recommend that researchers include neutral cues when using the auditory Stroop test and to carefully consider their neutral word choice.

A mechanistic understanding of cognitive performance deficits concurrent with vigorous intensity exercise.

This study aimed to evaluate whether cerebral oxygenation of the prefrontal cortex and associative-dissociative focus while completing the task mediate changes in cognition during exercise. Seventy-five young college-aged adults participated in this within-subjects randomized cross-over two-arm experimental design. During each session, participants completed a Stroop task four separate times: at baseline, two times during the exercise session, and at post-test. The experimental arm session involved participants cycling first at a moderate intensity, followed by cycling at a vigorous intensity. The active control arm session involved participants cycling at a very light intensity to ensure any effects were attributable to the level of exertion rather than the control of motor coordination. Cerebral oxygenation of the prefrontal cortex was assessed using fNIRS, while associate-dissociate attention was assessed using a self-report scale to provide insight into two hypothesized mechanisms which may contribute to alterations in cognition during exercise. Replicating well-established findings, results showed that during vigorous-intensity exercise, accuracy rates decreased for the most cognitively demanding conditions of the Stroop task, while reaction times were generally shorter compared to baseline. Neither shifting of attention in response to the dual-task nor prefrontal cortex oxygenation were observed to mediate cognitive deficits associated with vigorous exercise.

Effects of DLPFC tDCS Followed by Treadmill Training on Dual-Task Gait and Cortical Excitability in Parkinson's Disease: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

BACKGROUND: Gait disturbances are exacerbated in people with Parkinson's disease (PD) during dual-task walking (DTW). Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) has been shown to exert beneficial effects on gait performance and cortical excitability in PD; however, its combined effects with treadmill training (TT) remain undetermined. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effects of tDCS followed by TT on DTW performance and cortical excitability in individuals with PD. METHODS: Thirty-four PD participants were randomized to dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) tDCS and TT group (DLPFC tDCS + TT group) or sham tDCS and TT group (sham tDCS + TT group) for 50 minutes per session (20 minutes tDCS followed by 30 minutes TT), 12 sessions within 5 weeks (2-3 sessions each week). Outcome measures included cognitive dual-task walking (CDTW), motor dual-task walking (MDTW), usual walking performance, cortical excitability, functional mobility, cognitive function, and quality of life. RESULTS: The DLPFC tDCS + TT group exerted significantly greater improvement in CDTW velocity (P = .046), cadence (P = .043), and stride time (P = .041) compared to sham tDCS + TT group. In addition, DLPFC tDCS + TT group demonstrated a significant increase in resting motor threshold of stimulated hemisphere compared with sham tDCS + TT group (P = .026). However, no significant differences between groups were found in MDTW performance and other outcomes. CONCLUSION: Twelve-session DLPFC tDCS followed by TT significantly improved CDTW performance and decreased cortical excitability more than TT alone in individuals with PD. Applying DLPFC tDCS prior to TT could be suggested for gait rehabilitation in individuals with PD. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry ACTRN12622000101785.

Associations between brain structures, cognition and dual-task performance in patients with mild cognitive impairment: A study based on voxel-based morphology.

BACKGROUND: This study aimed to explore the associations between brain structures, cognition, and motor control in participants with mild cognitive impairment (MCI), with a focus on dual-task performance. METHODS: Thirty MCI patients and thirty healthy controls were enrolled. Cognitive function was assessed using the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA). Structural magnetic resonance imaging data were analyzed using voxel-based morphometry (VBM) to calculate brain parenchyma volume and gray matter volume (GMV). Participants performed single- and dual-task Timed Up and Go (TUG) tests, and the correlations between significant GMV differences and task execution time was analyzed. RESULTS: MCI patients showed significantly lower MoCA scores, particularly in visuospatial/executive, attention, and delayed recall domains (p < 0.05). Dual-task TUG execution time was significantly increased in MCI patients (p < 0.05). The GMV in the right anterior lobe of the cerebellum and both insulae was positively correlated with visuospatial/executive scores (FDR-corrected, p < 0.05). The GMV of the right cerebellar anterior lobe and insula were significantly reduced in MCI patients (p < 0.05). The GMV of the right cerebellar anterior lobe was negatively correlated with dual-task execution time (r = -0.32, p = 0.012). CONCLUSION: Smaller GMV in the right anterior lobe of the cerebellum was associated with impaired dual-task performance, which may provide more evidence for the neural mechanisms of cognitive and motor function impairments in MCI.

Implicit learning provides advantage over explicit learning for gait-cognitive dual-task interference.

Dual-task performance holds significant relevance in real-world scenarios. Implicit learning is a possible approach for improving dual-task performance. Analogy learning, utilizing a single metaphor to convey essential information about motor skills, has emerged as a practical method for fostering implicit learning. However, evidence supporting the effect of implicit learning on gait-cognitive dual-task performance is insufficient. This exploratory study aimed to examine the effects of implicit and explicit learning on dual-task performance in both gait and cognitive tasks. Tandem gait was employed on a treadmill to assess motor function, whereas serial seven subtraction tasks were used to gauge cognitive performance. Thirty healthy community-dwelling older individuals were randomly assigned to implicit or explicit learning groups. Each group learned the tandem gait task according to their individual learning styles. The implicit learning group showed a significant improvement in gait performance under the dual-task condition compared with the explicit learning group. Furthermore, the implicit learning group exhibited improved dual-task interference for both tasks. Our findings suggest that implicit learning may offer greater advantages than explicit learning in acquiring autonomous motor skills. Future research is needed to uncover the mechanisms underlying implicit learning and to harness its potential for gait-cognitive dual-task performance in clinical settings.

The Dual Task Ball Balancing Test and Its Association With Cognitive Function: Algorithm Development and Validation.

BACKGROUND: Dual task paradigms are thought to offer a quantitative means to assess cognitive reserve and the brain's capacity to allocate resources in the face of competing cognitive demands. The most common dual task paradigms examine the interplay between gait or balance control and cognitive function. However, gait and balance tasks can be physically challenging for older adults and may pose a risk of falls. OBJECTIVE: We introduce a novel, digital dual-task assessment that combines a motor-control task (the "ball balancing" test), which challenges an individual to maintain a virtual ball within a designated zone, with a concurrent cognitive task (the backward digit span task [BDST]). METHODS: The task was administered on a touchscreen tablet, performance was measured using the inertial sensors embedded in the tablet, conducted under both single- and dual-task conditions. The clinical use of the task was evaluated on a sample of 375 older adult participants (n=210 female; aged 73.0, SD 6.5 years). RESULTS: All older adults, including those with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and Alzheimer disease-related dementia (ADRD), and those with poor balance and gait problems due to diabetes, osteoarthritis, peripheral neuropathy, and other causes, were able to complete the task comfortably and safely while seated. As expected, task performance significantly decreased under dual task conditions compared to single task conditions. We show that performance was significantly associated with cognitive impairment; significant differences were found among healthy participants, those with MCI, and those with ADRD. Task results were significantly associated with functional impairment, independent of diagnosis, degree of cognitive impairment (as indicated by the Mini Mental State Examination [MMSE] score), and age. Finally, we found that cognitive status could be classified with >70% accuracy using a range of classifier models trained on 3 different cognitive function outcome variables (consensus clinical judgment, Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test [RAVLT], and MMSE). CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that the dual task ball balancing test could be used as a digital cognitive assessment of cognitive reserve. The portability, simplicity, and intuitiveness of the task suggest that it may be suitable for unsupervised home assessment of cognitive function.

Scoping review of the music-based movement therapy Ronnie Gardiner Method.

PURPOSE: Ronnie Gardiner Method (RGM) is a music-based movement therapy that has long been used within rehabilitation. There is a need to (1) identify the scope of the use of RGM, (2) explore potential benefits, (3) examine qualitative studies to capture perspectives from participants and practitioners, and (4) identify knowledge gaps to be addressed in future research. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A scoping review methodology was conducted. PubMed, CINAHL, Scopus, as well as the search engines DIVA portal, Libris.se, Google Scholar, and uppsatser.se were searched. Quantitative studies were summarised using diagnosis as a differentiating criterion, and qualitative studies were summarised in a narrative synthesis. RESULTS: Twenty-three studies were included, the vast majority of which consisted of non-peer-reviewed publications/grey literature. There is initial research evidence on potential benefits for stroke rehabilitation, with inconclusive results in other populations. Qualitative data indicate that RGM is adequately challenging and motivating for participants, with positive perceptions of recovery and quality of life. CONCLUSIONS: Findings indicate that RGM could serve as a valuable addition to neurological rehabilitation. Potential benefits were identified, and qualitative data indicate that RGM is perceived as motivating and enjoyable. Future research should employ robust study designs, including controlled trials, to further validate RGM.

The Ronnie Gardiner Method addresses various recovery aspects, including mobility, cognition, and emotional well-being, providing a comprehensive intervention with multiple purposes.The Ronnie Gardiner Method can increase patient adherence and engagement in neurorehabilitation through its enjoyable and motivational aspects.The option of sitting down during the exercises, and the absence of adverse events, potentially makes the Ronnie Gardiner Method suitable for populations with special needs.Rehabilitation professionals are advised to exercise caution given the limited availability of well conducted trials.

A Novel Approach for Improving Gait Speed Estimation Using a Single Inertial Measurement Unit Embedded in a Smartphone: Validity and Reliability Study.

Background: Gait speed is a valuable biomarker for mobility and overall health assessment. Existing methods to measure gait speed require expensive equipment or personnel assistance, limiting their use in unsupervised, daily-life conditions. The availability of smartphones equipped with a single inertial measurement unit (IMU) presents a viable and convenient method for measuring gait speed outside of laboratory and clinical settings. Previous works have used the inverted pendulum model to estimate gait speed using a non-smartphone-based IMU attached to the trunk. However, it is unclear whether and how this approach can estimate gait speed using the IMU embedded in a smartphone while being carried in a pants pocket during walking, especially under various walking conditions. Objective: This study aimed to validate and test the reliability of a smartphone IMU-based gait speed measurement placed in the user's front pants pocket in both healthy young and older adults while walking quietly (ie, normal walking) and walking while conducting a cognitive task (ie, dual-task walking). Methods: A custom-developed smartphone application (app) was used to record gait data from 12 young adults and 12 older adults during normal and dual-task walking. The validity and reliability of gait speed and step length estimations from the smartphone were compared with the gold standard GAITRite mat. A coefficient-based adjustment based upon a coefficient relative to the original estimation of step length was applied to improve the accuracy of gait speed estimation. The magnitude of error (ie, bias and limits of agreement) between the gait data from the smartphone and the GAITRite mat was calculated for each stride. The Passing-Bablok orthogonal regression model was used to provide agreement (ie, slopes and intercepts) between the smartphone and the GAITRite mat. Results: The gait speed measured by the smartphone was valid when compared to the GAITRite mat. The original limits of agreement were 0.50 m/s (an ideal value of 0 m/s), and the orthogonal regression analysis indicated a slope of 1.68 (an ideal value of 1) and an intercept of -0.70 (an ideal value of 0). After adjustment, the accuracy of the smartphone-derived gait speed estimation improved, with limits of agreement reduced to 0.34 m/s. The adjusted slope improved to 1.00, with an intercept of 0.03. The test-retest reliability of smartphone-derived gait speed was good to excellent within supervised laboratory settings and unsupervised home conditions. The adjustment coefficients were applicable to a wide range of step lengths and gait speeds. Conclusions: The inverted pendulum approach is a valid and reliable method for estimating gait speed from a smartphone IMU placed in the pockets of younger and older adults. Adjusting step length by a coefficient derived from the original estimation of step length successfully removed bias and improved the accuracy of gait speed estimation. This novel method has potential applications in various settings and populations, though fine-tuning may be necessary for specific data sets.

Effects of divided attention on movement-related cortical potential in community-dwelling elderly adults: A preliminary study.

Dual-tasking is defined as performing two or more tasks concurrently. This study aimed to investigate the effect of divided attention on movement-related cortical potential (MRCP) during dual-task performance in 11 community-dwelling elderly individuals while the load of the secondary task was altered. MRCP was recorded during a single task (ST), simple dual task (S-DT), and complex dual task (C-DT) as no-, low-, and high-load divided attention tasks, respectively. The ST involved self-paced tapping with an extended right index finger. In the S-DT and C-DT, the subjects simultaneously performed the ST and a visual number counting task with different levels of load. The coefficient of variation of movement frequency was significantly more variable in the C-DT than in the ST. The MRCP amplitude from electroencephalography electrode C3, contralateral to the moving hand, was significantly higher in the C-DT than in the ST. Higher attention diversion led to a significant reduction in MRCP amplitude in the participants. These results suggest that attention division in dual-task situations plays an important role in movement preparation and execution. We propose that MRCP can serve as a marker for screening the ability of older individuals to perform dual-tasks.

Dual-task costs in speed tasks: a comparison between elite ice hockey, open-skill and closed-skill sports athletes.

Introduction: Ice hockey is a high pace sports game that requires players to integrate multiple skills. Players face perceptive, cognitive, and motor tasks concurrently; hence, players are regularly exposed to dual- or multi-task demands. Dual-tasking has been shown to lead to decreased performance in one or both performed tasks. The degree of performance reductions might be modulated by the exhaustion of cognitive resources. Literature on dual-task paradigms that combine sport-relevant elements is scarce. Therefore, a novel paradigm combining cyclical speed of the lower extremities and concurrent visuo-verbal speed reading was tested and validated. Additionally, to understand the nature of dual-task costs, the relationship between these costs and cognitive performance was assessed. We hypothesized occurrence of dual-task costs in all athletes without relationship to single task performance. Differences in dual-task cost were expected between open-skill and closed-skill sports, as well as differing expertise levels. Level of cognitive function was expected to explain some variance in dual-task cost. Methods: A total of 322 elite athletes (120 ice hockey, 165 other team sports, 37 closed-skill sports) participated in this study. Each athlete performed a tapping task, a visuo-verbal speed-reading task, and both tasks simultaneously. All ice hockey athletes performed additional cognitive tests assessing processing speed, spatial working memory, sustained attention, two choice reaction time, and motor inhibition. Results: The results of paired-sample t-tests confirmed significant dual-task costs for all sport groups (p < 0.001). Single-task performance and dual-task costs correlated weakly in a positive direction. A one-way ANOVA revealed significantly greater costs in closed-skill sports athletes than in ice hockey and other sports athletes. No significant differences in dual-task costs were found between teams of differing expertise levels. Lastly, no significant regression model was found to predict dual-task costs from cognitive test performance. Discussion: Our study suggests that this novel dual-task paradigm was successful in inducing dual-task costs for all elite athletes. Since it distinguishes between closed-skill and open-skill sports athletes, it might be a valuable diagnostic tool for performance and for talent development of open-skill athletes. Dual-task costs could not be relevantly predicted via cognitive performance measures, questioning cognitive resource theories as an explanation for dual-task costs.

Initial investigation of kinesiophobia as a predictor of functional reaction time one year after concussion.

Aim: The relationship between post-concussion kinesiophobia and clinical and functional reaction time (RT) beyond clinical recovery remains to be elucidated. Methods: College-aged participants with (n = 20) and without (n = 20) a concussion history completed patient-reported outcomes, and RT tasks. Kinesiophobia, symptoms and RTs were compared using t-tests. Linear regressions were performed to determine if kinesiophobia predicted RT measures and dual-task cost. Results: The concussion history group reported higher scores (p < 0.01) for all patient-reported outcomes. We observed significant single-task RT differences between groups (p = 0.013) such that those without a concussion history (m = 0.51s ± 0.08) were faster (m = 0.59s ± 0.12). There were no clinical or dual-task RT differences between groups (p > 0.05). Kinesiophobia significantly predicted single-task RT (R2 = 0.22). Discussion: Kinesiophobia should be considered when measuring RT.

Validation of fNIRS measurement of executive demand during walking with and without dual-task in younger and older adults and people with Parkinson's disease.

BACKGROUND: Walking with a concurrent cognitive task (dual-task walking) can pose a challenge to some populations due to aging or neurodegenerative disease. These tasks require cognitive resources involving the prefrontal cortex and can be studied using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). An important step in understanding fNIRS measures during such walking tasks is validating that measures reflect the demands of the tasks and not confounding sources or movement artifacts. AIM: This study aimed to investigate the validity of fNIRS measures of prefrontal cortex activity as an indicator of executive demand during usual walking (single-task) and dual-task walking against clinical and objective measures of motor behavior in young adults, older adults, and people with Parkinson's disease (PD), by evaluating several validation hypotheses. METHODS: In total, 133 participants were recruited from younger adults (18-50 years, n = 42), older adults (≥60 years, n = 49) and people with PD (≥60 years, n = 42). Activity in the prefrontal cortex during walking with and without an auditory Stroop task was measured with fNIRS. A combined hemoglobin measure (correlation-based signal improvement, CBSI) was calculated for use in a region of interest analysis in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC). Pre-registered hypotheses regarding convergent validity, discriminant validity and known group validity were tested. An exploratory analysis of different hemoglobin measures was also performed. RESULTS: Increases in dlPFC activity were found from single- to dual-task walking in the younger adults group and from rest to single-task walking in the older adults and PD groups. In line with hypotheses, a positive relationship was found between between dlPFC activity during dual-task walking and dual-task cost in the younger adults group, as well as a positive relationship to step time variability during single-task walking and a negative relationship to walking speed during single-task walking in the PD group. However, several clinical and gait measures lacked a relationship with dlPFC activity. CONCLUSION: The fNIRS results point towards the CBSI measure of dlPFC activity being a valid measure of executive demand during both single and dual-task walking. Some relationships between clinical and gait measures and brain activity during walking need further investigation.

Impact of a passive upper-body exoskeleton on muscular activity and precision in overhead single and dual tasks: an explorative randomized crossover study.

Introduction: Tasks performed at or above head height in industrial workplaces pose a significant challenge due to their association with musculoskeletal disorders. Upper-body exoskeletons have been identified as a potential solution for mitigating musculoskeletal loads and fighting against excessive muscular fatigue. However, the influence of such support on fine motor control, as well as on cognitive-motor interference, has received limited attention thus far. Therefore, this crossover randomized study aimed to investigate the impact of the use of a passive upper-body exoskeleton in the presence of muscular fatigue or not. Additionally, focusing on differences between single (ST) and dual (DT) industrial tasks consisting of overhead speed and accuracy exercises. Methods: In both scenarios, N = 10 participants (5 male/5 female) engaged in an overhead precision task using a nail gun to precisely target specific areas on three differently sized regions, based on Fitts' law paradigm (speed-accuracy trade-off task). This was done with and without the passive upper-body exoskeleton, before and immediately after a fatiguing exercise of shoulder and leg muscles. In addition, a second task (dual-task, DT) was carried out in which the occurrence of an auditory signal had to be counted. The main outcomes were muscular activation of the shoulder girdle as well as the time to perform speed-accuracy tasks of different difficulty indexes (calculated by means of Fitts' law). Results and discussion: In the absence of fatigue, the exoskeleton did not affect the speed-accuracy trade-off management of participants in the single task, but it did in the dual-task conditions. However, after muscle fatigue, the speed-accuracy trade-off was differently affected when comparing its execution with or without the exoskeleton. In general, the dual task resulted in longer times to perform the different tasks, whether it was with or without the exoskeleton. Furthermore, the use of the exoskeleton decreased muscle activity, which is associated with less physical effort, but only significantly for the M. deltoideus and M. trapezius when compared by tasks. Overall, these study findings highlight the potential supportive effects of using an upper-body exoskeleton for industrial overhead tasks.

Increased dual-task interference during upper limb movements in stroke exceeding that found in aging - a systematic review and meta-analysis.

Objective: To determine whether dual-task interference during upper limb tasks is increased in patients after stroke compared to healthy older subjects and to compare magnitude of stroke-induced change in interference to that explained by aging. Methods: We conducted a systematic literature search in MEDLINE, CINAHL, Google Scholar and PEDro databases up to October 2023 for studies on upper limb dual-tasks in stroke and elderly healthy subjects. Eleven upper limb dual-task studies in stroke patients and 11 studies in healthy older subjects were identified and systematically reviewed. A meta-analysis was performed on seven stroke studies and on five studies in healthy older subjects that included control groups. Results: Most stroke studies investigated proximal arm movements with kinematic measures, but few studies evaluated manual dexterity. In contrast, studies in healthy older subjects used more distal (finger tapping) tasks. The meta-analysis showed that stroke patients had on average a 19% (CI 95% = 1.0-37.3) increase in dual-task interference compared to age-matched healthy controls (Z = 2.06, p = 0.04). Older healthy subjects showed greater dual-task interference compared to younger subjects (19% greater, CI 95% = 6.5-31.2, Z = 2.98, p = 0.003). Conclusion: Meta-analysis revealed an increase in dual-task interference during upper limb movements in stroke patients, exceeding age-related changes, supporting the presence of subclinical impairments in divided attention post-stroke that may impede motor recovery.

Dual-Task Cost Effects on Static Posture Control Parameters and Choice Reaction Time in Individuals With and Without Intellectual Disabilities.

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of age and intellectual disability (ID) on postural balance parameters, dual-task cost (DTC), and choice reaction time (CRT). Fifty-eight individuals with ID and 55 peers without ID performed a postural stance balance task under two conditions: a single task with eyes open and dual task involving an additional cognitive task (light sequence). Four postural balance parameters (total displacement, total sway area, mediolateral, and anteroposterior dispersion), cost of the dual task ([DTC%] = [(single-task performance - dual-task performance)/single-task performance] × 100), and CRT were recorded, calculated, and analyzed. All postural control parameters reflected poorerperformance during the dual-task condition, nevertheless, DTC was significantly higher only in individuals with ID and only for the total sway area, F(1, 111) = 5.039, p = .027, and mediolateral dispersion, F(1, 111) = 6.576, p = .012. CRT was longer in individuals with ID compared with the individuals without ID, F(1, 111) = 94.979, p ≤ .001, while age did not have a significant effect on the DTC nor on the CRT, F(1, 111) = 0.074, p = .786. In conclusion, an additional cognitive task during the postural balance task had a detrimental effect on various postural balance parameters, leading to increased DTC in terms of total sway area, mediolateral dispersion, and prolonged CRT in individuals with ID.

Effects of Specific Dual Task Training on Change of Direction Ability, Cognitive Flexibility, and Inhibition in Young Soccer Players.

In the current study we aimed to investigate the effect of specific dual task training (SDTT) compared to conventional soccer training (CST) on motor and cognitive performances in U13 elite soccer players. Twenty-four young soccer players (all males) participated in this study. We measured their change of direction ability (CODA) and cognitive performances (cognitive flexibility and inhibition) before and after four weeks in either the SDTT group or the CST group. We administered the Trail-Making Test (TMT) to evaluate cognitive flexibility and the Stroop test to evaluate cognitive inhibition. We assessed CODA using the t test (TT). After training, CODA (p < .001), cognitive flexibility (p < .001), and inhibition (p < .001) were improved only in the SDTT group. These results suggest that SDTT seems more suitable than CST to optimally improve both CODA and cognitive performances in U13 elite soccer players.

Maintaining Cognitive Performance at the Expense of Gait Speed for Asymptomatic Concussed Athletes: A Novel Dual-Task and Post-Exercise Assessment.

Our goal was to evaluate persisting deficits in gait and executive functioning in asymptomatic athletes with a history of concussion using a novel approach combining a dual-task paradigm and post-exercise exertion. Thirty-eight athletes aged 17 to 25 years old participated in the study, including 18 with a history of concussion. The dual-task paradigm required walking continuously at a predetermined self-paced target speed of 6.5 km/h while executing a complex switch task. Athletes completed two conditions, each on separate days: (1) dual task alone and (2) dual task following 20 min of running on a non-motorized treadmill. The statistical analyses revealed a significant reduction in gait speed exclusively for athletes with a history of concussion and only following the post-exercise condition (p = 0.008). These findings suggest that although asymptomatic concussed athletes maintain a cognitive performance comparable to non-concussed athletes, this appears to be achieved at the expense of gait speed. Our results underscore the importance of incorporating gait assessments and post-exercise exertion into concussion evaluation protocols in both research and clinical settings.

Interaction between visual working memory and upright postural control in young adults: an event-related potential study based on the n-back paradigm.

As a part of the overall information-processing system of the brain, postural control is related to the cognitive processes of working memory. Previous studies have suggested that cognitive tasks and postural control processes can compete for resources in common brain areas, although there is an "inverted U" relationship between arousal level and behavioral control - the arousal level of individuals changes when performing cognitive tasks. However, the exact neural connections between the two are unclear. This may be related to the nature of cognitive tasks. Some studies believe that posture occupies not only spatial information processing resources but also visual non-spatial information processing resources. Other studies believe that posture control only occupies spatial information processing resources in the central system, but does not occupy non-spatial information processing resources. Previous studies used different cognitive task materials and reached different conclusions. In this study, we used the same visuospatial and non-spatial materials, the n-back visual working memory paradigm, the event-related potential technique to investigate the effects of visuospatial and non-spatial working memory tasks on adolescents' postural control under different cognitive loads. The results of this study showed that in both visuospatial and non-spatial conditions, the N1 effect of the parieto-occipital lobe was larger during upright posture than in the sitting position (160-180 ms), the P300 effect of the central parieto-occipital region (280-460 ms) was induced by working memory in different postures, and the P300 wave amplitude was higher in the sitting position than in the upright position. We demonstrated that upright postural control enhances early selective attention but interferes with central memory encoding, thus confirming that postural control and visuospatial and non-spatial working memory share brain regions and compete with each other.

Association of dual task gait performance with cognitive outcomes among older adults: Piloting an inexpensive, portable assessment platform.

Motor assessment has emerged as complementary evidence for the detection of late life cognitive disorders. Clinicians lack inexpensive, accurate, and portable tools for this purpose. To fill this void, the current study piloted measures from the Mizzou Point-of-care Assessment System a multimodal sensor platform. We examined the ability of these motor function measures to distinguish neurocognitive status and assessed their associations with cognitive performance. Data came from 42 older adults, including 16 with mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Participants performed dual task gait, pairing walking with serial subtraction by sevens, along with aa neuropsychological test battery. T-tests revealed that individuals with MCI demonstrated slower stride times (d = .55) and shorter stride lengths (d = .98) compared to healthy older adults. Results from hierarchical regression showed that stride time and stride length predicted cognitive performance across several domains, after controlling for cognitive status and demographics. Cognitive status moderated this relationship for global cognition and attention, wherein gait measures were significantly related to these outcomes for the cognitively normal group, but not the MCI group. Evidence from the current study provided preliminary support that MPASS measures demonstrate expected associations with cognitive performance and can distinguish amongst those with and without cognitive impairment.