Campus landscape types and pro-social behavioral mediators in the psychological recovery of college students.

Introduction: Physical and mental health problems of college students are becoming more prominent, and contact with nature has a positive effect on physical and mental health. This paper investigates the psychological recovery effect of different types of campus green space landscape on college students. From the perspective of college students' perception of campus landscape types, the green space, blue space, gray space and movement space of three universities in Anhui Province are investigated. Methods: Through choose campus landscape types and questionnaires, structural equation modeling (SEM) and mediation modeling were constructed on the role of college students' perception of campus landscape types on psychological recovery. Results: It was found that the level of landscape type perception had a significant effect on the effect of psychological recovery and the generation of pro-social behavior, with no significant gender difference, while psychological recovery also had a positive effect on the generation of pro-social behavior. The study also found that campus landscape type not only directly affect students psychological recovery, but also promote psychological recovery through the mediating role of pro-social behavior. Discussion: The study reveals the effects of campus landscape type on college students' psychological recovery, and pro vides a basis for planning campus of different types.

Inspiring nurses' sustainability mindset: Exploring the Mediating Role of Organizational Culture on the relationship between Pro-social Leader behaviors and nurses' sustainability consciousness.

BACKGROUND: Since nurses are at the frontline of healthcare delivery, their actions and understanding of the environment have a big impact on how long healthcare systems can last. It is essential to comprehend the elements that impact nurses' sustainability consciousness to encourage ecologically conscious actions in the healthcare industry. AIM: This study aimed to explore the relationship between pro-social leader behaviors and nurses' sustainability consciousness and testify to the mediating role of organizational culture in this relationship. DESIGN: A cross-sectional descriptive correlational design by STROBE criteria was used. METHODS AND TOOLS: An approach to a judgmental non-probability sampling technique was employed to obtain data from 350 nurses in an Egyptian hospital. Three measurement surveys were employed: Organizational Culture Survey, Prosociality Scale, and, Sustainability Consciousness Questionnaire (SCQ-S). Relationships were shown using structural equation modeling and descriptive and inferential statistics. RESULTS: 53.4% of nurses have high perceptions of organizational culture, and the majority of nurses (85.7%) have high perceptions of prosocial leader behaviors. Furthermore, 60.9% of nurses have high perceptions of sustainability consciousness. Additionally, Prosocial leader behaviors positively correlated with organizational culture (r = 0.129) and nurses' sustainability consciousness (r = 0.274). The indirect effect of prosocial leader behaviors on nurses' sustainability consciousness through organizational culture is calculated by multiplying the coefficients of both direct effects (0.129 * 0.159 = 0.811). This means that for each unit increase in prosocial leader behaviors, we would expect a 0.811 unit increase in nurses' sustainability consciousness through the mediating effect of organizational culture. The model appears to match the data well based on the model fit parameters (CFI = 1.000, IFI = 1.000, RMSEA = 0.114). CONCLUSIONS: The study highlights the impact of pro-social leader behaviors on nurses' sustainability consciousness through the organizational culture as a mediating factor. NURSING IMPLICATIONS: Findings from this research can promote environmental stewardship and sustainable practices in the healthcare sector by illuminating the elements that can encourage and support a sustainability-oriented mindset among nurses. To promote a more sustainable future for the nursing profession, the findings can guide activities in nursing education, corporate culture transformation, and leadership development.

Unveiling Unexpected Selfless Collectivism: Exploring Variances in Moral Beliefs Across Cultural Values.

Purpose: The impact of moral beliefs on individuals' moral judgments, particularly within the framework of contrasting cultural values such as collectivism and individualism, continues to be a subject of interest. This research delves into whether individuals with distinct values display differences in moral beliefs, with a specific focus on selflessness. Methods: Through experiment 1 and 2, we scrutinize the moral judgments of individuals with diverse values concerning pro-social behaviors driven by selflessness and in-group favoritism. Experiment 3 investigates the underlying mechanisms by examining reward expectations. Results: The findings from experiments 1 and 2 indicate that collectivists exhibit significantly higher moral judgment levels for selfless pro-social behaviors compared to individualists, highlighting a disparity in moral beliefs between the two value systems. Experimental 2 also found that collectivists' moral judgments rose and fell as rescuers' selflessness increased or decreased. However, individualist moral judgment did not change significantly with behavioral selflessness. The results reveal that collectivists hold higher reward expectations for selfless behavior, which contributes to their heightened moral judgment of selfless behavior. Conclusion: While it may be assumed that collectivists' moral beliefs would be dominated by in-group preferences, aligning with the conceptual in-group preference of collectivism, this study unexpectedly found evidence of collectivists' pursuit of selflessness in their moral beliefs. These findings offer initial evidence of distinct patterns of moral beliefs associated with collectivism and individualism, shedding light on potential reasons that lead collectivists to possess stronger moral beliefs about selflessness.

Wound-dependent leg amputations to combat infections in an ant society.

Open wounds pose major infection and mortality risks in animals.1,2 To reduce these risks, many animal species apply antimicrobial compounds on their wounds.1,2,3,4 Ant societies use antimicrobial secretions from the metapleural gland to combat pathogens,5,6,7,8,9,10 but this gland has been lost over evolutionary time in several genera, including Camponotus.11 To understand how infected wounds are handled without the use of antimicrobial secretions from the metapleural gland, we conducted behavioral and microbiological experiments in Camponotus floridanus. When we experimentally injured a worker's leg at the femur, nestmates amputated the injured limb by biting the base (trochanter) of the leg until it was severed, thereby significantly increasing survival compared to ants that did not receive amputations. However, when the experimental injury was more distal (at the tibia), nestmates did not amputate the leg and instead directed more wound care to the injury site. Experimental amputations also failed to improve survival in ants with infected tibia injuries unless the leg was amputated immediately after pathogen exposure. Micro-CT scans revealed that the muscles likely responsible for leg hemolymph circulation are predominantly in the femur. Thus, it is likely that femur injuries, by attenuating hemolymph flow, provide sufficient time for workers to perform amputations before pathogen spread. Overall, this study provides the first example of the use of amputations to treat infected individuals in a non-human animal and demonstrates that ants can adapt their type of treatment depending on the location of wounds.

The core tendencies underlying prosocial behavior: Testing a person-situation framework.

OBJECTIVE AND BACKGROUND: According to a recently proposed theoretical framework, different personality traits should explain pro-social behavior in different situations. We empirically tested the key proposition of this framework that each of four "core tendencies" (i.e., the shared variance of related traits) specifically predicts pro-social behavior in the presence of a different situational affordance. METHODS: We used a large-scale dataset (N = 2479) including measures of various personality traits and six incentivized economic games assessing pro-social behavior in different social situations. Using bifactor modeling, we extracted four latent core tendencies and tested their predictive validity for pro-social behavior. RESULTS: We found mixed support for the theoretically derived, preregistered hypotheses. The core tendency of beliefs about others' pro-sociality predicted pro-social behavior in both games involving dependence under uncertainty, as expected. Unconditional concern for others' welfare predicted pro-social behavior in only one of two games providing a possibility for exploitation. For conditional concern for others' welfare and self-regulation, in turn, evidence relating them to pro-social behavior in the presence of a possibility for reciprocity and temporal conflict was relatively weak. CONCLUSION: Different features of social situations may activate different personality traits to influence pro-social behavior, but more research is needed to fully understand these person-situation interactions.

Investigating the role of adversity and benevolence beliefs in predicting prosociality.

BACKGROUND: Does experiencing adversity engender kindness, and if so, for whom? Two studies tested the hypothesis that adversity predicts increased pro-social outcomes, and that this relationship is strongest for individuals who view others as good and trustworthy, or benevolent. METHOD: In Study 1, a cross-sectional survey design was utilized, and in Study 2 a longitudinal survey was conducted. RESULTS: In Study 1 (N = 359), the number of lifetime adverse life events was associated with increased volunteering, empathic concern, and self-reported altruism. The association of adversity and altruism was stronger for those with greater benevolence beliefs. In Study 2 (N = 1157), benevolence beliefs were assessed, and in subsequent years, adverse life events were reported. The number of past-year adverse life events predicted more volunteering and charitable involvement, but only among people with high benevolence beliefs. CONCLUSION: Exposure to adversity may be associated with increased pro-social behavior among those with higher benevolence beliefs. In part, this could be due to benevolence beliefs increasing the expectation that one's efforts will be appreciated and reciprocated.

Threat-induced prosocial behavior: enhanced exogenous attention to protect others from harm.

As social animals, humans tend to voluntarily engage in pro-social behavior to prevent harm to others. However, to what extent prosocial behavior can be reflected at the level of less voluntary cognitive processes remains unclear. Here, we examined how threat to others modulates exogenous attention. Fifty-four participants performed an exogenous spatial cueing task where the participant's performance determined whether electric shocks would be delivered either to themselves or to their anonymous co-participant. Threat of shock to the co-participant elicited orienting and reorienting responses that were faster than in the safe condition and did not differ from performance when participants avoided shocks to themselves. This attentional improvement was not due to speed-accuracy trade off and was associated with arousal, i.e., increased pupil dilation in both threat conditions. Together, these findings suggest that pro-social behavior triggers automatic attentional processes which may be relevant for providing immediate help without relying on reflexive processes.

Volunteer group participation and subsequent health and well-being among older adults in Japan: An outcome-wide longitudinal approach.

BACKGROUND: Prior studies have underscored the importance of studying volunteering in the East Asian context. However, no study has conducted a holistic assessment of the relationship between volunteering and the multidimensional health and well-being outcomes of East Asian populations using a strong study design for causal inference. To address this gap, this study examined the associations between volunteer group participation and the subsequent health and well-being of Japanese older adults. METHODS: Three waves of data (2013, 2016, and 2019), obtained from the Japan Gerontological Evaluation Study-a nationwide cohort study of physically and cognitively independent older adults, aged ≥ 65 years, in Japan-were utilized. Exposure was evaluated as the frequency of volunteer group participation: ≥ 1/week, 1 - 3 times a month, a few times a year, and none (2016). As outcomes, 40 indicators of health and well-being were assessed across seven domains (2019): physical/cognitive health, health behaviors, mental health, subjective well-being, social well-being, pro-social/altruistic behaviors, and cognitive social capital. We included 47,318 respondents for four outcomes (death, dementia, and functional disability [any level and level 2 or greater]) and 34,187 respondents for the 36 other outcomes. RESULTS: More frequent volunteering (≥ 1/week) was associated with higher social well-being outcomes, more frequent pro-social/altruistic behaviors and outings, and fewer depressive symptoms, even after considering multiple testing. CONCLUSION: Throughout the three-year follow-ups, volunteer group participation was beneficial for depressive symptoms, social well-being, and other proximal outcomes.

"Eco-caring together" pro-ecological group-based community interventions and mental wellbeing: a systematic scoping review.

Background: Poor mental wellbeing is a challenge for societies across the world, as is the increasing threat of climate change, and emerging evidence suggests these challenges are interrelated. Green and social prescribing of non-clinical interventions hold promise as a cost-effective and widely accessible way to improve wellbeing, and interest is growing in whether pro-ecological communal activities have mutual benefits for both people and the planet. Objectives: Communal pro-ecological activities are growing in popularity, and research is gathering pace into whether participation influences mental wellbeing. The present systematic review scopes the existing evidence base to explore what is being done, what is being found, and what additional research is required. Methods: Electronic databases (PsychNET, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science) were searched for studies that involved groups of people undertaking pro-ecological activities, where components of mental wellbeing were assessed. Eligibility criteria were purposely broad, including all study designs and participants across the lifespan. Results: Thirty-seven eligible studies were identified. Nearly half of the studies used mixed-method designs, and most studies used surveys or interviews to evaluate outcomes. Most pro-ecological activities involved planting vegetation, and habitat creation, maintenance, or restoration. Methodological quality varied considerably. Among the perceived therapeutic mechanisms reported, the social elements of the interventions were prominent. Discussion: Coherent synthesis of the current evidence base is challenging given the heterogeneous range of methods, samples, and interventions within the studies. However, the results here demonstrate promise that with future research and better methodological rigor, pro-ecological group-based interventions hold the potential to improve mental wellbeing and influence sustainable behavior. Systematic review registration: https://osf.io/vmpr6/.

Young children's choices and thoughts about pro-social behaviour towards others with overweight.

OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to investigate weight bias within young children's pro-social choices between characters who differed in body size. METHODS: Seventy-six children aged 4-6 years read stories asking them to choose who they would first help, share with, comfort, and steal from, between a healthy weight and child with overweight. They also selected the one character they would most like to play with. Children's reasoning for these choices was recorded and analysed. RESULTS: The character with overweight was helped first in only a third of the choices made. Children chose the characters with overweight more often as the target for anti-social action. In friendship selections, children overwhelmingly rejected the characters with overweight. However, weight bias was not prominent in the reasons children gave for the choices. Most children were not negative about body shape, weight or appearance. Similarly, in friendship choices, these were mostly expressed positively to the character chosen. Only a small minority of children were explicitly negative about the character with overweight. CONCLUSIONS: A better understanding of weight bias acquisition and variation between children will benefit those working in health care and educational settings. Future research should link with developmental theory, such as on social categorization and theory of mind.

The Neural Mechanism Underlying Differentiated In-Group Versus Out-Group Face Recognition and Memory, Identification, Empathy and Pro-social Behavior: Evidence from fMRI and ERP Studies.

In the context of perceiving individuals within and outside of social groups, there are distinct cognitive processes and mechanisms in the brain. Extensive research in recent years has delved into the neural mechanisms that underlie differences in how we perceive individuals from different social groups. To gain a deeper understanding of these neural mechanisms, we present a comprehensive review from the perspectives of facial recognition and memory, intergroup identification, empathy, and pro-social behavior. Specifically, we focus on studies that utilize functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and event-related potential (ERP) techniques to explore the relationship between brain regions and behavior. Findings from fMRI studies reveal that the brain regions associated with intergroup differentiation in perception and behavior do not operate independently but instead exhibit dynamic interactions. Similarly, ERP studies indicate that the amplitude of neural responses shows various combinations in relation to perception and behavior.

Mechanisms of Self-Control in the Influence of Moral Elevation on Pro-Social Behavior: A Study Based on an Experimental Paradigm.

Introduction: Because the mechanisms by which moral elevation triggers an individual's pro-social behavior remain unclear, this study examined the mediating role of self-control resources in the relationship between moral elevation and pro-social behavior. Methods: Experiment 1 examined the effects of moral elevation on self-control resources using two task paradigms, the Stroop task and the Go/NoGo task, with 80 college students as study participants. Experiment 2 was conducted with an additional 140 college students, using both experimental and questionnaire methods to examine the mediating role of self-control resources in the effects of moral elevation on pro-social behavior. Results: (1) The results of Experiment 1 showed that the self-control ability of the moral elevation induction group was significantly better than that of the non-induction group. The accuracy rate of self-control tasks in the induction group (0.94 ± 0.01) was significantly higher than that in the non-induction group (0.89 ± 0.01, F(1,79)=19.10, p <0.001, η2=0.50). The mean reaction time of the self-control tasks in the induction group (393.63 ± 3.5) was significantly lower than that in the non-induction group (415.38 ±7.30, F(1,79)=5.87, p =0.026, η2=0.24). (2) The results of Experiment 2 showed a significant positive correlation between moral elevation and self-control resources (r=0.46, p<0.001), a significant positive correlation between moral elevation and pro-social behavior (r=0.33, p<0.001), and a significant positive correlation between self-control resources and pro-social behavior (r=0.31, p<0.001). Not only did moral elevation significantly and positively predict pro-social behavior (ß= 0.23, p=0.011), but it also significantly and positively predicted self-control resources (ß= 0.46, p<0.001). Self-control resources significantly and positively predicted pro-social behavior (ß= 0.20, p=0.025). The bootstrap test for the mediating effect of self-control resources showed that the upper and lower limits of the 95% confidence interval did not include 0 (indirect effect 0.09, 95% CI [0.023, 0.242], p<0.001), and the mediating effect accounted for 28.13%. Conclusion: This study revealed the mediating role of self-control resources in the relationship between moral elevation and pro-social behavior, which has important theoretical and practical implications for cultivating pro-social behavior and moral education among college students.

Social Contact, Social Participation, and Emotional Well-Being Among Older Adults During the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Roles of Giving and Receiving Social Support.

This study examined whether social contact, social participation, and social support during the COVID-19 pandemic were associated with depression and anxiety. Data were taken from the 2020 COVID-19 Supplement of the National Health and Aging Trends Study (N = 2,778). Depression and anxiety were regressed on social contact frequency, social participation, and social support. Path analyses were also performed. The results showed that in-person contact was related to lower levels of depression, while in-person contact and attending religious services were related to lower levels of anxiety. Giving and receiving support were associated with higher levels of depression and anxiety. Giving support mediated the link between virtual contact, volunteering, and depression, while receiving support mediated the link between virtual contact and depression. Receiving and giving support mediated the association between virtual social contact, volunteering, and anxiety. During the pandemic, being socially connected provided some benefits in terms of emotional well-being, but in some cases being socially connected did not provide salubrious effects.

Factors influencing consumers' intention to donate blood: A South African perspective.

The objective of this study was to determine the factors influencing consumer intention to donate blood in an emerging market setting. A quantitative research design was followed that entailed the collection of data from 308 non-donor respondents, using a self-administered online questionnaire. The conceptual model and hypotheses were analysed statistically, using SPSS to conduct reliability analysis, correlation analysis, and multiple regression analysis. The findings revealed that awareness of consequences, ascription of responsibility, and personal norms had a positive and significant influence on consumers' intention to donate blood. Ascription of responsibility was the largest influencer of personal norms towards blood donation.

It Is Belief in Dualism, and Not Free Will, That Best Predicts Helping: A Conceptual Replication and Extension of Baumeister et al. (2009).

Previous research found that experimentally reducing people's belief in free will affects social behaviors. However, more recent investigations could not replicate several findings in this literature. An explanation for the mixed findings is that free will beliefs are related to social behaviors on a correlational level, but experimental manipulations are not able to detect this relation. To test this interpretation, we conceptually replicated and extended a landmark study in the free will belief literature originally conducted by Baumeister et al. In five studies (total N = 1,467), we investigated whether belief in free will predicts helping behavior in comparison to other beliefs related to free will. Overall, our results support the original findings, as belief in free will correlated with helping behavior. However, the results also show that the best predictor of helping behavior is not belief in free will but belief in dualism. Theoretical implications are discussed.

Open-hearted: Preferences for openness in the agreeableness domain.

OBJECTIVE: Open objects encourage interactivity and closed objects discourage it. Repeated experiences with open and closed objects are thought to give rise to spatial concepts that can be used to represent a variety of entities such as societies, others, and the self. The present investigation pursues the idea that preferring that which is open to that which is closed is more compatible with an agreeable mode of interacting with others. METHOD: Three studies (total N = 901) asked participants whether they preferred "open" or "closed" as spatial concepts. Such preferences were linked to variations in agreeableness, peer perceptions, and daily measures of pro-social functioning. RESULTS: Open-preferring, relative to closed-preferring, individuals scored higher in agreeableness (Study 1) and were rated by peers as interpersonally warmer (Study 2). Open preferences varied within and across persons in a daily diary protocol and, in both cases, higher levels of open preference were linked to higher levels of pro-social feeling (Study 3). CONCLUSION: The findings point to a fundamental component of spatial orientation that plays a significant role in encouraging (open) or discouraging (closed) warm, interactive relations with others.

Conducta prosocial en adultos: relación con la empatía y variables sociodemográficas

Diversos estudios han mostrado que existe una asociación entre el comportamiento prosocial y la habilidad empática. La forma más frecuente de evaluar ambos constructos es a través de escalas de autorreporte, siendo la Escala de Conducta Prosocial (ECP) y el Indice de Reactividad Interpersonal (IRI) las más utilizadas en población adulta. Hasta el momento, no hay reportes disponibles sobre la relación entre la empatía y la conducta prosocial en adultos de habla hispana evaluados con dichas escalas. Objetivo: Evaluar la conducta prosocial utilizando la ECP en personas adultas de habla hispana y analizar su interacción con la empatía evaluada con la escala IRI, así como también identificar su relación con otras variables de interés (edad, género y orden de presentación de las escalas durante la evaluación). Método: Se administró la ECP y el IRI a una muestra de 115 participantes, quienes fueron asignados de manera aleatoria a un orden específico de exposición a las escalas (IRI-ECP y ECP-IRI). Resultados: El rendimiento en la ECP mostró estar asociado a la edad y a la interacción entre el rendimiento en el IRI y el género, mientras que el orden de presentación de las escalas no mostró asociación con las puntuaciones. Conclusión: La empatía y variables sociodemográficas como el género y la edad se relacionan con las conductas prosociales de individuos adultos de habla hispana y por lo tanto deben considerarse en la evaluación.

Previous research has shown an association between prosocial behavior and empathic ability. These constructs are normally assessed in the adult population using self-report scales, such as Prosocial Behavior Scale (ECP) and Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI). Currently, there is no available data about the interaction between empathy and prosocial behavior assessed with these scales in Spanish-speaking adults. Objective: To assess prosocial behaviors using ECP in Spanish-speaking adults and analyze its interaction with empathy assessed with IRI, as well as identify the relationship with other variables of interest (age, gender and order of presentation of the scales during the assessment). Method: ECP and IRI were administered to a sample of 115 subjects, who were randomly assigned to a specific order of exposure to the scales (IRI-ECP and ECP-IRI). Results: Performance on ECP was associated with age and the interaction between IRI scores and gender. The order in which the scales were presented during assessment showed no association with ECP scores. Conclusion: Empathy and sociodemographic variables, such as gender and age, are associated with prosocial behaviors of Spanish-speaking adults and therefore need to be considered during the assessment.

Vários estudos mostraram que existe uma associação entre o comportamento pró-social e a capacidade empática. A forma mais comum de avaliar ambos os construtos é por meio de escalas de autorrelato, sendo a Escala de Comportamento Pró-Social (ECP) e o Índice de Reatividade Interpessoal (IRI) os mais utilizados na população adulta. Até o momento, não há relatos disponíveis sobre a relação entre empatia e Comportamento pró-social em adultos falantes de español avaliados com essas escalas. Objetivo: Avaliar o comportamento pró-social por meio da ECP em adultos falantes de español e analizar sua interação com a empatia availada com a escala IRI, bem como identificar sua relação com outras variáveis de interesse (idade, gênero e ordem de apresentação das escalas durante a avaliação). Método: A ECP e o IRI foram aplicados a uma amostra de 115 participantes, os quais foram aleatoriamente designados para uma ordem específica de exposição às escalas (IRI-ECP e ECP-IRI). Resultados: O desempenho na ECP mostrou-se associado à idade e à interação entre o desempenho no IRI e o gênero, enquanto a ordem de apresentação das escalas não apresentou associação com os escores. Conclusão: A empatia e variáveis ​​sociodemográficas como gênero e idade estão relacionadas aos comportamentos pró-sociais de indivíduos adultos falantes de espanhol e, portanto, devem ser consideradas na avaliação.

The impact of the Community Resiliency Model (CRM) on the mental well-being of youth at risk for violence: A study protocol.

PURPOSE: Assess the effect of a brief, somatic awareness resiliency training, the Community Resiliency Model (CRM)®, on the mental well-being of incarcerated youth. SPECIFIC AIM 1: Explore the relationship between youth demographics and justice history to baseline well-being scores and response to treatment. Q1: How do personal variables, including length of time in juvenile justice, relate to baseline mental health scores and response to the wellness skills intervention? SPECIFIC AIM 2: Examine the mental health scores over time to determine effectiveness of participating in CRM training while incarcerated. Hypothesis 1: Well-being scores will increase after CRM training. Hypothesis 2: Emotional distress will decrease after participating in a CRM training. Hypothesis 3: Pro-social feelings and behaviors will increase after participating in a CRM training.

Emotion regulation among 4-6 year-old children and its association with their peer relationships in Jordan.

Specific characteristics and competencies are required for maintaining peer relationships, and this study hypothesizes that emotion regulation is one of the competencies. The current study aimed to investigate the association between emotion regulation and peer relationships in 4-6-year-old children, and examine the sex differences among them. This study examined sex differences in peer relationships and the emotion regulation ability of children aged 4-6 years. The study sample comprised 300 children aged 4-6 years [170 girls (56.7%) and 130 boys (43.3%)] studying in kindergarten and first grade in Jordan. As part of data collection, questionnaires were distributed to teachers. The Emotion Regulation Scale (ERC) was used to measure emotion regulation, and the Social Competence and Behavior Evaluation (SCBE) scale, a subscale of the SCBE, was utilized to assess peer relationships. The results revealed a positive relationship between emotion regulation and positive poles of peer relationships (integrated, calm, and pro-social) and a significant negative relationship between emotional lability/negativity and positive poles of peer relationships. These results can be used to design intervention programs to reduce aggressive behavior in children.

Testosterone facilitates nonreproductive, context-appropriate pro- and anti-social behavior in female and male Mongolian gerbils.

A growing body of literature suggests that testosterone (T) rapidly modulates behavior in a context-specific manner. However, the timescales in which T can rapidly mediate distinct types of behavior, such as pro- vs. anti- social responses, has not been studied. Thus, here we examined acute T influences on social behavior in male and female Mongolian gerbils in nonreproductive contexts. Females and males received an injection of either saline or T and were first tested in a social interaction test with a same-sex, familiar peer. 5 min after the peer interaction, subjects then underwent a resident-intruder test with a novel, same-sex conspecific. After another 5 min, gerbils were tested in a novel object task to test context-specificity (i.e., social vs. nonsocial) of T effects on behavior. Within 1 h, males and females injected with T exhibited more huddling with a peer but more active avoidance of and less time spent in proximity of an intruder than did animals injected with saline. T effects on behavior were specific to social contexts, such that T did not influence investigation of the novel object. Together these findings show that T rapidly promotes pro-social responses to a familiar peer and anti-social responses to an intruder in the same individuals within 5 min of experiencing these disparate social contexts. This demonstrates that T rapidly facilitates behavior in a context-appropriate manner outside the context of reproduction and reveals that rapid effects of T on behavior are not restricted to males.