Relationship between the root processing method and quality of herbal medicine of Rauvolfia serpentina cultivated in Japan.

Rauvolfia serpentina roots are used as herbal medicine for snake and insect bites, fever, malaria, abdominal pain, hypertension, and dysentery in Southeast Asian countries. This study evaluates the content of reserpine, ajmaline, and ajmalicine in R. serpentina roots obtained with an efficient root processing method. The plants were cultivated in Tanegashima Island in southern part of Japan, where NIBIOHN's experimental farm station is located. We examined both the type of cork layer removal method (manual work, drum mixer washing, and high-pressure washing) and dried roots. We found that the resulting active ingredient contents were not significantly different between manual work and 30 min of drum mixer washing, and high-pressure washing. The washing in a drum mixer for 30 min could be an efficient root processing method. The amount of each active ingredient was compared in each root part (large-, middle-, and small-diameter roots), and there were no significant difference in their contents. In conclusion, R. serpentina roots having a diameter ≥ 0.5 cm contain a similar amount of active ingredients, suggesting that the quality of the crude drug does not vary in the root part. Thus, our study provides significant insights into the use of R. serpentina roots for herbal medicine applications as well as constituents of active ingredients.

Alstomaphylines A-K, monoterpenoid bisindole alkaloids from Alstonia macrophylla with AChE inhibitory activity and cytotoxicity.

Eleven undescribed monoterpenoid bisindole alkaloids, alstomaphyines A-K (1-11), along with three known analogues were isolated from the leaves and stem bark of the Alstonia macrophylla. Compounds 1-3 were unprecedented dimerization alkaloids incorporating a macroline-type motif with an ajmaline-type motif via a C-C linkage. Their structures and absolute configurations were elucidated by extensive spectroscopic analysis, electronic circular dichroism (ECD) calculation, and CD exciton chirality method. Compounds 1-3 displayed potential inhibitory bioactivity against AChE with IC50 values of 4.44 ± 0.35, 3.59 ± 0.18, and 3.71 ± 0.23 µM, respectively. Enzyme kinetic study revealed compounds 1-3 as mixed competitive AChE inhibitors. Besides, compounds 8 and 12-14 exhibited better cytotoxicity against human cancer cell line HT-29 than cisplatin. Flow cytometry data revealed that compounds 8, 13, and 14 significantly induced the HT-29 cells arrest in G0/G1 phase in a concentration-dependent manner.

Vincarostine A, a novel anti-malarial trimeric monoterpenoid indole alkaloid from Catharanthus roseus.

A novel trimeric monoterpenoid indole alkaloid, vincarostine A (1) consisting of an aspidosperma-iboga-aspidosperma type skeleton, was isolated from the whole plant of Catharanthus roseus. The structure including absolute stereochemistry was elucidated on the basis of 2D NMR data and CD spectrum. Vincarostine A (1) showed anti-malarial activity.

Tabernaecorymine A, an 18-normonoterpenoid indole alkaloid with antibacterial activity from Tabernaemontana corymbosa.

Tabernaecorymine A, an 18-normonoterpenoid indole alkaloid with conjugated (E)-3-aminoacrylaldehyde fragment was obtained from the stem bark of Tabernaemontana corymbosa. Its structure was elucidated by extensive spectroscopic data analyses, and further verified by ACD/structure elucidator, electronic circular dichroism (ECD) analyses and density functional theory (DFT) chemical shift predictions. The compound exhibited significant antibacterial bioactivity against Streptococcus dysgalactiae with an MIC value of 3.12 µg/mL, which is better than the plant drug berberine.

Monoterpene indole alkaloids from Melodinus cochinchinensis (Lour.) Merr.

Melodicochinines A - D (1-4), four new monoterpene indole alkaloids (MIAs), along with 21 known ones, were isolated from the stems and twigs of Melodinus cochinchinensis. Their structures were elucidated on the basis of extensive spectroscopic analysis. A ubiquitin-rhodamine 110 assay showed that 11-methyloxytabersonine had potential inhibitory effect against ubiquitin-specific protease 7 (USP7).

New Monoterpenoid Indoles with Osteoclast Activities from Gelsemium elegans.

The well-known toxic medicine Gelsemium elegans is widely and historically used to treat bone fracture and skin ulcers by the folk people of China. Two new monoterpenoid indole alkaloids, gelselegandines D and E, together with the known analogue gelegamine A were isolated from G. elegans. Their structures were elucidated by means of spectroscopic techniques and quantum chemical calculations. All isolated compounds were tested for the effects on RANKL-induced osteoclast formation. Interestingly, gelselegandine E and gelegamine A, respectively, showed significant promoting and inhibitory activities on osteoclastogenesis, while gelselegandine D had no activity under the same concentration. This work suggested the different configurations for the carbons near the C-19/20 oxygen rings of the isolated compounds may be the key active groups on osteoclast formation and provided the evidence for the rationality as the traditional treatment for bone-related diseases of G. elegans.

Accelerated Solvent Extractions (ASE) of Mitragyna speciosa Korth. (Kratom) Leaves: Evaluation of Its Cytotoxicity and Antinociceptive Activity.

Mitragyna speciosa Korth (kratom) is known for its psychoactive and analgesic properties. Mitragynine is the primary constituent present in kratom leaves. This study highlights the utilisation of the green accelerated solvent extraction technique to produce a better, non-toxic and antinociceptive active botanical extract of kratom. ASE M. speciosa extract had a dry yield (0.53-2.91 g) and showed a constant mitragynine content (6.53-7.19%) when extracted with organic solvents of different polarities. It only requires a shorter extraction time (5 min) and a reduced amount of solvents (less than 100 mL). A substantial amount of total phenolic (407.83 ± 2.50 GAE mg/g and flavonoids (194.00 ± 5.00 QE mg/g) were found in ASE kratom ethanol extract. The MTT test indicated that the ASE kratom ethanolic leaf extract is non-cytotoxic towards HEK-293 and HeLa Chang liver cells. In mice, ASE kratom ethanolic extract (200 mg/kg) demonstrated a better antinociceptive effect compared to methanol and ethyl acetate leaf extracts. The presence of bioactive indole alkaloids and flavonols such as mitragynine, paynantheine, quercetin, and rutin in ASE kratom ethanolic leaf extract was detected using UHPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS analysis supports its antinociceptive properties. ASE ethanolic leaf extract offers a better, safe, and cost-effective choice of test botanical extract for further preclinical studies.

Kratom Alkaloids, Natural and Semi-Synthetic, Show Less Physical Dependence and Ameliorate Opioid Withdrawal.

Chronic administration of opioids produces physical dependence and opioid-induced hyperalgesia. Users claim the Thai traditional tea "kratom" and component alkaloid mitragynine ameliorate opioid withdrawal without increased sensitivity to pain. Testing these claims, we assessed the combined kratom alkaloid extract (KAE) and two individual alkaloids, mitragynine (MG) and the analog mitragynine pseudoindoxyl (MP), evaluating their ability to produce physical dependence and induce hyperalgesia after chronic administration, and as treatments for withdrawal in morphine-dependent subjects. C57BL/6J mice (n = 10/drug) were administered repeated saline, or graded, escalating doses of morphine (intraperitoneal; i.p.), kratom alkaloid extract (orally, p.o.), mitragynine (p.o.), or MP (subcutaneously, s.c.) for 5 days. Mice treated chronically with morphine, KAE, or mitragynine demonstrated significant drug-induced hyperalgesia by day 5 in a 48 °C warm-water tail-withdrawal test. Mice were then administered naloxone (10 mg/kg, s.c.) and tested for opioid withdrawal signs. Kratom alkaloid extract and the two individual alkaloids demonstrated significantly fewer naloxone-precipitated withdrawal signs than morphine-treated mice. Additional C57BL/6J mice made physically dependent on morphine were then used to test the therapeutic potential of combined KAE, mitragynine, or MP given twice daily over the next 3 days at either a fixed dose or in graded, tapering descending doses. When administered naloxone, mice treated with KAE, mitragynine, or MP under either regimen demonstrated significantly fewer signs of precipitated withdrawal than control mice that continued to receive morphine. In conclusion, while retaining some liabilities, kratom, mitragynine, and mitragynine pseudoindoxyl produced significantly less physical dependence and ameliorated precipitated withdrawal in morphine-dependent animals, suggesting some clinical value.

Monoterpenoid indole alkaloids from the fruits of Gelsemium elegans and their anti-inflammatory activities.

Two novel monoterpenoid indole alkaloids (MIAs), gelsechizines A-B (1-2), along with four known ones (3-6) were isolated from the fruits of Gelsemium elegans. Compound 1 features a new carbon skeleton with two additional carbon atoms forming a 4-methylpyridine unit. Their structures with absolute configurations were elucidated by NMR, MS, X-ray diffraction and electronic circular dichroism (ECD) calculations. Compounds 1-3 showed significant anti-inflammatory effects in vivo and in vitro, which may be related to the inhibition of the trecruitment of neutrophils and macrophages as well as the secretion of TNF-α and IL-6. Preliminary structure-activity relationship analysis revealed that the ß-N-acrylate moiety plays an important role in the anti-inflammatory effect.

The effects of chronic mitragynine (Kratom) exposure on the EEG in rats.

Mitragynine is the main alkaloid isolated from the leaves of Mitragyna speciosa Korth (Kratom). Kratom has been widely used to relieve pain and opioid withdrawal symptoms in humans but may also cause memory deficits. Here we investigated the changes in brain electroencephalogram (EEG) activity after acute and chronic exposure to mitragynine in freely moving rats. Vehicle, morphine (5 mg/kg) or mitragynine (1, 5 and 10 mg/kg) were administered for 28 days, and EEG activity was repeatedly recorded from the frontal cortex, neocortex and hippocampus. Repeated exposure to mitragynine increased delta, but decreased alpha powers in both cortical regions. It further decreased delta power in the hippocampus. These findings suggest that acute and chronic mitragynine can have profound effects on EEG activity, which may underlie effects on behavioral activity and cognition, particularly learning and memory function.

Melognine, a novel monoterpenoid indole alkaloid from Melodinus fusiformis that induce apoptosis in BT549 cells.

A novel monoterpenoid indole alkaloid, melognine (1) possessing an unprecedented skeleton with a 6/6/5/5/6/6 hexatomic rearranged ring system was isolated from the stems of Melodinus fusiformis. The structure with absolute configuration of 1 was established by extensive spectroscopic analyses and quantum ECD calculations. Melognine showed significant cytotoxicity on human breast cancer BT549 cells with an IC50 value of 1.49 µM by MTT assay. Further mechanism of action study indicated that melognine demonstrated the ability to induce apoptosis by activation of caspase-3 and p53, and downregulation of Bcl-2 in BT549 cells.

Cage-Monoterpenoid Quinoline Alkaloids with Neurite Growth Promoting Effects from the Fruits of Melodinus yunnanensis.

Meloyunnanines A-C, three alkaloids with an unprecedented skeleton, were isolated from fruits of Melodinus yunnanensis. The structures featuring a caged-6/6/5/6/5/5 ring system were elucidated by the analysis of comprehensive spectroscopic and X-ray data. Biosynthetically, meloyunnanines A-C were assigned to monoterpenoid quinoline alkaloids (MQAs), derived from monoterpenoid indole alkaloids through oxidation and rearrangement. These compounds together with three known Melodinus MQAs were evaluated for their neurotrophic activity and scandine N4-oxide exhibited significant effect.

Anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities of Neolamarckia cadamba and its bioactive monoterpenoid indole alkaloids.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: Neolamarckia cadamba has been used traditionally to treat inflammation, fever, and pruritus in the Dai ethnopharmacy in Yunnan province, P.R. China. However, according to literature survey, the action basis of anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities of this plant were rarely reported, which accounts for the original intentions of this investigation. AIM OF THE STUDY: The study aimed to investigate the anti-inflammatory and analgesic action of methanolic extract (ME), ethyl acetate (EA), and aqueous (AQS) fractions of N. cadamba and further explore the accurate compounds responsible for the activities of EA fraction. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The in vivo anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities of ME, EA, and AQS fractions at the doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg and two major constituents (compounds 5 and 7) at 50 and 100 mg/kg via intragastrically administrated, respectively, were evaluated by carrageenan-induced paw edema and acetic acid-stimulated writhing animal models. Aspirin (ASP) was used as the positive control at the dose of 200 mg/kg. The monoterpenoid indole alkaloids (MIAs) in EA fraction were phytochemically studied utilizing chromatographic techniques, and their structures and absolute configurations were established on the basis of multiple spectroscopic analyses and quantum computational chemistry method. Moreover, the in vitro anti-inflammatory activities of all the isolates were assessed by suppressing releases of LPS-activated inflammatory mediators (TNF-α, IL-1ß, and COX-2) in RAW 264.7 macrophage cells at a concentration of 10 µg/mL. Dexamethasone (DXM) was used as the positive control. RESULTS: Three fractions (ME, EA, and AQS) significantly ameliorated the paw edema caused by carrageenan and reduced the number of writhing induced by acetic acid in comparison to the control group at the doses of 200 and/or 400 mg/kg (in vivo). Subsequent phytochemical investigation of EA fraction led to the structural characterization of four new monoterpenoid indole alkaloids, neocadambines A-D (1-4), as well as eight known analogues (5-12). Neocadambine A possesses a novel 14-nor-MIA skeleton that could be derived from the corynantheine-type MIAs via oxidative cleavage of C3-C14 bond and subsequently degradation of C14. Moreover, the structure of a bioactive known MIA, cadambine acid (6), was reassigned by analysis of its NMR spectroscopic data. Further biological assays revealed that the major constituent 3ß-dihydrocadambine (7) significantly relieved the paw edema and decreased the number of writhing at 100 mg/kg in vivo. In addition, most of the isolates displayed remarkable in vitro anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting the secretion of aforementioned inflammatory mediators (COX-2, IL-1ß, and TNF-α) at a concentration of 10 µg/mL, and compounds 4, 7, and 9 showed better anti-inflammatory effects than that of positive control, dexamethasone. CONCLUSIONS: This study further validated the anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities of N. cadamba, and revealed that monoterpenoid indole alkaloids could partly contribute to the efficacy of this ethnodrug. The major constituent 3ß-dihydrocadambine (7) showed significant anti-inflammatory activities both in vitro and in vivo, which suggested that it could be a promising anti-inflammatory lead compound. Our findings provided scientific justification to support the traditional application of N. cadamba for treating inflammatory and nociceptive disorders.

Detection of Mitragynine in Mitragyna Speciosa (Kratom) Using Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy with Handheld Devices.

A simple, quick, selective, sensitive, and effective field-friendly method capable of being used by nonexperts has been developed for detecting mitragynine in Mitragyna speciosa (kratom) using surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS). Over 100 samples and blanks (known to be either positive or negative for the presence of mitragynine) were examined in duplicate using five identical handheld Raman spectrometers, which provided a data set of over 1,000 examinations. Based on the results of these analyses, the method yielded a true-positive rate of 99.3%, a true-negative rate of 97.9%, a false-positive rate of 2.1%, and a false-negative rate of 0.7%. The average minimum detectable concentration (Cm ) of mitragynine that reproducibly yielded a match for one of the library spectra on all five instruments was determined to be 342 ng/mL (ppb). This Cm value is a conservative estimate considering that the extraction process was not fully optimized by this study, which was not necessary since the Cm value achieved was well below typical mitragynine concentrations in kratom (1.3-2.3%). The method is ideal (i) for prioritizing samples for additional testing using other more time-consuming laboratory-based techniques needed to detect and quantify mitragynine and (ii) for field use at international mail facility (IMF) satellite laboratories to help interdict kratom and prevent this dangerous product from reaching the U.S. supply chain.

Acute mitragynine administration suppresses cortical oscillatory power and systems theta coherence in rats.

BACKGROUND: Mitragynine is the major alkaloid of Mitragyna speciosa (kratom) with potential as a therapeutic in pain management and in depression. There has been debate over the potential side effects of the drug including addiction risk and cognitive decline. AIMS: To evaluate the effects of mitragynine on neurophysiological systems function in the prefrontal cortex (PFC), cingulate cortex (Cg), orbitofrontal cortex, nucleus accumbens (NAc), hippocampus (HIP), thalamus (THAL), basolateral amygdala (BLA) and ventral tegmental area of rats. METHODS: Local field potential recordings were taken from animals at baseline and for 45 min following mitragynine administration (10 mg/kg, intraperitoneally). Drug-induced changes in spectral power and coherence between regions at specific frequencies were evaluated. Mitragynine-induced changes in c-fos expression were also analyzed. RESULTS: Mitragynine increased delta power and reduced theta power in all three cortical regions that were accompanied by increased c-fos expression. A transient suppression of gamma power in PFC and Cg was also evident. There were no effects of mitragynine on spectral power in any of the other regions. Mitragynine induced a widespread reduction in theta coherence (7-9 Hz) that involved disruptions in cortical and NAc connectivity with the BLA, HIP and THAL. CONCLUSIONS: These findings show that mitragynine induces frequency-specific changes in cortical neural oscillatory activity that could potentially impact cognitive functioning. However, the absence of drug effects within regions of the mesolimbic pathway may suggest either a lack of addiction potential, or an underlying mechanism of addiction that is distinct from other opioid analgesic agents.

Monoterpenoid indole alkaloids from the stems of Kopsia officinalis.

Five new indole alkaloids, kopsiofficines H-L (1-5), along with fourteen known alkaloids (6-19) were isolated from the stems of Kopsia officinalis. Their structures were elucidated by extensive NMR, mass spectroscopic analyses and comparison to the reported data. All the isolated compounds were evaluated their anti-inflammatory activities by inhibiting IL-1ß, PGE2 and TNF-α secretion in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated RAW264.7 cells. Compounds 2, 3, 6, 7, 11, 12, 15, and 17 show significant anti-inflammatory activities. These results demonstrate pharmacodynamic substance basis of these folkloric claims.

Kratom (Mitragyna Speciosa) Liver Injury: A Comprehensive Review.

Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) leaves contain the mu opioid partial agonists mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine. The US Drug Enforcement Agency considers it a 'drug of concern', and the US FDA is reviewing kratom, but there is a paucity of information regarding health effects. Liver injury is often cited as a potential health consequence, however the same few case reports are repeatedly referenced, without a broader context. Furthermore, reports have largely lacked standardized causality assessment methods. The objective is to evaluate causality in kratom liver injury, through a comprehensive scoping review of human cases, and by reviewing epidemiologic, animal, and mechanistic reports that relate to kratom liver injury. Hepatotoxicity causality was systematically examined using the Roussel Uclaf Causality Assessment Method (RUCAM) for case reports. Biopsy findings, potential pathophysiologic mechanisms, and management options are discussed. This review identified 26 case reports and abstracts, in addition to 7 cases reported from the Drug-Induced Liver Injury Network, 25 in FDA databases, and 27 in internet user forums. Latency periods to symptom onset had a median of 20.6 days and mean of 21 days (range 2-49). Common presenting signs and symptoms were abdominal discomfort, jaundice, pruritis, and dark urine. Histologic findings were predominantly cholestatic, although, biochemically, the condition was heterogenous or mixed; the median R ratio was 3.4 and the mean was 4.6 (range 0.24-10.4). Kratom likely causes liver injury based on the totality of low-quality human evidence, and, in the context of epidemiologic, animal, and mechanistic studies. It remains unclear which subgroups of users are at heightened risk.

Uncarialins A-I, Monoterpenoid Indole Alkaloids from Uncaria rhynchophylla as Natural Agonists of the 5-HT1A Receptor.

Nine new monoterpenoid indole alkaloids, uncarialins A-I (1-9), were isolated from Uncaria rhynchophylla as well as 14 known analogues (10-23). Their structures were determined by HRESIMS, 1D and 2D NMR, and experimental and calculated electronic circular dichroism data. Compounds 5, 7, 15, and 22 displayed significant agonistic effects against the 5-HT1A receptor with EC50 values of 2.2 ± 0.1, 0.1 ± 0.1, 1.6 ± 0.3, and 2.0 ± 0.5 µM, respectively. The mechanisms of action of these four compounds with the 5-HT1A receptor were investigated by molecular docking, and the results suggested that amino acid residues Asp116, Thr196, Asn386, and Tyr390 played critical roles in the observed activity of the above-mentioned compounds.

Monoterpenoid indole alkaloids from the bark of Melodinus henryi.

Four new alkaloids, melodinines W1-W4 (1-4), together with twenty one known alkaloids (5-25) were isolated from Melodinus henryi. The structures with absolute configurations were elucidated by extensive MS and NMR spectroscopic methods, as well as the single crystal X-ray diffraction and ECD calculations. All compounds were evaluated for their cytotoxicities to five human cancer cell lines. Many compounds showed certain cytotoxicities to five human cancer cell lines with an IC50 range of 1.4-29.4 µM.

Melotenuines A-E, cytotoxic monoterpenoid indole alkaloids from Melodinus tenuicaudatus.

Five new monoterpenoid indole alkaloids, melotenuines A-E (1-5), along with 18 known indole alkaloids, were isolated from the twigs and leaves of Melodinus tenuicaudatus. The structures of the new alkaloids were determined by a combination of MS, NMR and ECD analysis. Melotenuine A (1) represents the first example of aspidosperma-meloscandonine type bisindole alkaloids characterized by a methylene bridge between the two monomers, while melotenuine B (2) possessed a rare eburnamine-melsocandonine skeleton. All of the new indole alkaloids were evaluated for in vitro cytotoxicities against five human cancer cell lines. Among them, alkaloid 4 showed specific cytotoxicity against HL-60 cell line with IC50 value (5.15 ±â€¯0.16 µM) comparable with that of positive control.