Imaging of cerebrovascular complications from blunt skull base trauma.

Cerebrovascular complications from blunt trauma to the skull base, though rare, can lead to potentially devastating outcomes, emphasizing the importance of timely diagnosis and management. Due to the insidious clinical presentation, subtle nature of imaging findings, and complex anatomy of the skull base, diagnosing cerebrovascular injuries and their complications poses considerable challenges. This article offers a comprehensive review of skull base anatomy and pathophysiology pertinent to recognizing cerebrovascular injuries and their complications, up-to-date screening criteria and imaging techniques for assessing these injuries, and a case-based review of the spectrum of cerebrovascular complications arising from skull base trauma. This review will enhance understanding of cerebrovascular injuries and their complications from blunt skull base trauma to facilitate diagnosis and timely treatment.

"Sandwich" Structure in Reconstruction of Traumatic Comminuted Anterior Skull Base Fractures: Surgical Technique and Outcomes.

BACKGROUND: Comminuted fractures of the anterior skull base can easily cause dural damage, leading to cerebrospinal fluid leakage and retrograde infection. Skull base reconstruction is essential. This study aimed to present a novel and simple technique for repairing skull base defects using a self-made fascia-bone fragments-fascia "sandwich" structure made by fascia, fracture fragments, and sutures. METHOD: From 2018 to 2023, we performed self-made sandwich structures for skull reconstruction in 10 patients with anterior skull base comminuted fractures. After debridement, the intracranial bone fragments of the surgical patient were safely removed. In vitro, the bone fragments were spread between two layers of temporal or broad fascia to form a sandwich structure similar to the size of the bone defect, and the periphery was firmly sutured with sutures. The self-made structure was then filled to the defect and fixed with fibrin glue. The periosteum at the top of the forehead was also turned over to the repair area for covering and fixation. Meanwhile, a facial skin cosmetic suture was performed. Finally, we evaluate the feasibility and efficacy of this technique. RESULTS: All 10 patients underwent reconstructive surgery using the self-made fascia-fracture fragments-fascia sandwich structure. Five patients with open wounds on the face also underwent cosmetic revisions. No cerebrospinal fluid leakage occurred in all the patients at discharge as well as 3 months later. CONCLUSIONS: For patients with comminuted fracture of the anterior skull base, the fascia-bone fragments-fascia structure could repair the skull base and prevent the occurrence of cerebrospinal fluid leakage.

Trans-Defect Underlay Watertight Duraplasty for Traumatic Anterior Skull Base Dural Defect: Technical Report.

BACKGROUND: Watertight duraplasty is essential for surgical management of traumatic anterior skull base (ASB) dural defect but challenging in the deep and narrow operative corridor. Here, the authors report a trans-defect underlay watertight duraplasty (TDUWD) technique for traumatic ASB dural defect. METHODS: TDUWD was performed by inserting a free pericranium graft under the dural defect. The diameter of the pericranium graft was larger than the dural defect. The pericranium graft was sutured to the dural defect watertightly in an "inside-to-outside" direction, with the needle not penetrating the inner layer of pericranium graft. The pedicled pericranium flap was used as a second layer of reconstruction. The characteristics, complications, and outcomes of patients who received TDUWD are reported. RESULTS: A total of 29 patients received TDUWD. Immediate postoperative cessation of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leak occurred in 28 patients. One patient recovered after lumber drainage. No patient needed a second operation or reported delayed recurrence of CSF leak. No complication related to the surgical technique was observed. CONCLUSIONS: Use of TDUWD for traumatic ASB dural defect results in an immediate, 1-stage, and definitive correction of CSF leak and seems to be simple, safe, and reliable for large and deeply located dural defects.

Vascular injury arising from lateral skull base fractures.

PURPOSE: Although uncommon, vascular injury can be seen in patients with lateral skull base fractures (LSBF). However, little is known about this potentially life-threatening comorbidity. The objective of this study is to better characterize the vascular injuries associated with temporal and lateral sphenoid bone fractures. BASIC PROCEDURES: Retrospective review of all patients with computed tomography angiography (CTA) performed specifically to evaluate for vascular injury following LSBF. In addition to patient demographics (age, gender, race), the mechanism of injury, the location of fracture(s), and the nature of vascular injury diagnosed by CTA was recorded. Two-way ANOVA was performed to determine if any variables were predictive of vascular injury. MAIN FINDINGS: From 2011 to 2021, 143 patients with 333 subsite fractures met inclusion criteria. Of all patients, 46 (32.2 %) had CTA evidence of at least one vascular injury, the most common type being venous thrombosis/filling defect (41.7 %). Evidence of vascular injury was unclear in 14 patients (9.8 %). Fractures most associated with vascular injury ranged from 0.7 % (otic capsule fractures) to 26.7 % (mastoid, lateral sphenoid fractures). Risk of vascular injury was no different between patients with single vs multiple fractures. There were no fracture locations that could reliably predict specific vascular injury. CONCLUSIONS: Over 40 % of all CTAs ordered following LSBF identified were suspicious for associated vascular injury. Yet fracture location and number cannot reliably predict vascular injury. Until such determinants can be better identified, clinicians should have a low threshold to obtain CTA to rule out associated vascular injury.

Cerebrospinal Fluid Leaks After Anterior Skull Base Trauma: A Systematic Review of the Literature.

BACKGROUND: Anterior skull base (ASB) fractures are reported in 4% of head injuries and represent 21% of all skull fractures. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leaks may follow, severely exacerbating outcomes. We systematically reviewed the literature to analyze and compare the roles of endoscopic surgery, open surgery, and combined approaches in the management of CSF leak repair after posttraumatic ASB fractures. METHODS: PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus databases were searched in accordance with the PRISMA guidelines. Studies reporting clinical data of patients with CSF leaks after ASB fracture were reviewed, focusing on management strategies and posttreatment outcomes. RESULTS: We included 29 articles comprising 888 patients. The average age at diagnosis was 34 years (range, 18-91 years), with a male predominance (54%) and a male/female ratio of 2.9:1 (647:241). Clinical data were available for 888 patients with CSF leaks after ASB fracture, reporting a median follow-up time of 33.5 months (standard deviation, ±29; range, 0.5-330.0 months). Open surgical repair was the most common approach (67.9%), followed by endoscopic surgical repair (32.1%). The endoscopy cohort showed lower rates of complications (0.7% vs. 11.1%) and fistula recurrence (2.8% vs. 5.3%) compared with open surgery. CONCLUSIONS: ASB fractures are frequently treated as late surgery, 24 hours from injury or later, especially for endoscopic surgery. Overall, the endoscopic approach is preferred, mostly because of its safety and effectiveness, offering lower failure rates than does open surgery.

Tension Pneumocephalus Following Balloon Sinuplasty.

Balloon sinus dilation (BSD) is a common method of relieving sinus outflow obstruction. With the rising utilization of BSD, increasing numbers of BSD-related complications have also been reported. Here, we report a case of pneumocephalus and cerebrospinal fluid leak following BSD of the frontal sinus. Additionally, a review of the literature regarding BSD complications was performed.

Caution during endotracheal suctioning in case of skull base fractures!

OBJECTIVE: Cerebral exteriorization through the cribriform plate during routine endotracheal suctioning (ETS) in a coughing patient without sedation with multiple complex skull base fracture; this case has never been reported in the literature. CLINICAL PRESENTATION: We report the case of a polytrauma patient admitted in our ICU with severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) and multiple complex skull base fractures. After 48 hours of neurocritical care and stable neuromonitoring parameters, sedation was stopped for neurological assessment. During this period and while routine ETS was being performed, brain herniation with exteriorization through the nose occurred with a concomitant ICP elevation. CONCLUSIONS: ETS can induce the coughing reflex and provoke a rise in ICP. It is a simple routine procedure that should be performed with great precautions in order to avoid iatrogenic complications, particularly in patients with skull base fractures, such as brain herniation as described in our patient.

Association of skull fracture with in-hospital mortality in severe traumatic brain injury patients.

INTRODUCTION: To identify the association between skull fracture (SF) and in-hospital mortality in patients with severe traumatic brain injury (TBI). MATERIALS AND METHODS: This multicenter cohort study included a retrospective analysis of data from the Japan Trauma Data Bank (JTDB). JTDB is a nationwide, prospective, observational trauma registry with data from 235 hospitals. Adult patients with severe TBI (Glasgow Coma Scale <9, head Abbreviated Injury Scale (AIS) ≥ 3, and any other AIS < 3) who were registered in the JTDB between January 2004 and December 2017 were included in the study. Patients who (a) were < 16 years old, (b) developed cardiac arrest before or at hospital arrival, and (c) had burns and penetrating injuries were excluded from the study. In-hospital mortality was the primary outcome assessed. Multivariable logistic regression analyses were performed to calculate the adjusted odds ratios (ORs) of SF and their 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for in-hospital mortality. RESULTS: A total of 9607 patients were enrolled [median age: 67 (interquartile range: 50-78) years] in the study. Among those patients, 3574 (37.2%) and 6033 (62.8%) were included in the SF and non-SF groups, respectively. The overall in-hospital mortality rate was 44.1% (4238/9607). A multivariate analysis of the association between SF and in-hospital mortality yielded a crude OR of 1.63 (95% CI: 1.47-1.80). A subgroup analysis of the association of skull vault fractures, skull base fractures, and both fractures together with in-hospital mortality yielded adjusted ORs of 1.60 (95% CI: 1.42-1.98), 1.40 (95% CI: 1.16-1.70), and 2.14 (95% CI: 1.74-2.64), respectively, relative to the non-SF group. CONCLUSIONS: This observational study showed that SF is associated with in-hospital mortality among patients with severe TBI. Furthermore, patients with both skull base and skull vault fractures were associated with higher in-hospital mortality than those with only one of these injuries.

CSF Leak After COVID-19 Nasopharyngeal Swab: A Case Report.

The nasopharyngeal swab has been used with increased frequency since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic. Little has been written in the literature regarding the complications arising from this procedure, as it is generally accepted as safe. In this report, we describe a case in which a young woman sustained a traumatic skull base injury during a nasopharyngeal swab for COVID-19. We then discuss the subsequent treatment and outcome. This case demonstrates the potential for significant complications arising from this widespread procedure and the necessity for awareness of these potential complications. Laryngoscope, 131:1927-1929, 2021.

Skull base trauma: Masking, stimulating or neutral factor for the insidious development of angiosarcoma in a 19-year-old.

Angiosarcoma is a malignancy of endothelial tumor and represents 1-2% of all soft tissue sarcomas, uncommonly found in the head and neck region. The etiology is not clear but there are definite risk factors including chronic lymphoedema, history of radiation, environmental carcinogens and certain familial syndromes. Presented here is a case of a patient treated due to the skull base trauma and diagnosed with this type of tumor.

Post-traumatic orbitorrhea: An underestimated life-threatening complication following anterior skull base fractures.

Orbitorrhea is defined as a leak of cerebrospinal fluid from a cranio-orbital fistula. It is usually related to anterior skull base trauma. Orbitorrhea is an exceptional and life-threatening condition which should be promptly managed. We herein report the case of a right post-traumatic orbitorrhea following anterior skull base trauma. Conservative treatment was initially attempted. At 6 weeks, recurrence was noted, and the patient underwent neurosurgical management. A few months later, a secondary upper lid retraction was diagnosed and treated by full-thickness skin graft with favourable outcome. To our knowledge, fewer than 30 cases have been previously reported. Ophthalmologists should be aware of this life-threatening condition which could be underestimated.

Outcomes of Endoscopic Versus Open Skull Base Surgery in Pediatric Patients.

OBJECTIVE/HYPOTHESIS: To characterize the pathology and outcomes of skull base surgery in the pediatric population by open versus endoscopic surgical approach. STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. METHODS: A retrospective review of pediatric patients (<18 years) who underwent skull base surgery for nonmalignant disease from May 2000 to August 2019 was performed. Patient demographics, pathology, and operative characteristics by surgical approach were recorded and analyzed. Patients with a combined endoscopic/open approach were classified as open for the analysis. RESULTS: Eighty-two pediatric skull base patients were identified with a mean age of 11.3 years (standard deviation 5.2). A purely endoscopic approach was used in 63 (77%) patients, a purely open approach was used in nine (11%) patients, and a combined open/endoscopic approach was used in 10 (12%) patients. The all-cause complication rate was 9.8%. There was no statistically significant difference in rate of complications between patients with an open versus endoscopic approach for resection (15.8% vs. 7.9%; P = .379). Risk of having a complication did not significantly vary by patient age. The odds of having a complication with an open approach was not statistically significant in a multivariable model adjusted for age, sex, race, intraoperative cerebrospinal fluid leak, tracheostomy requirement, and vascular flap use (odds ratio 2.76, 95% confidence interval 0.28-26.94; P = .383). CONCLUSIONS: Our retrospective study demonstrates a similar risk of complication for open versus endoscopic approach to resection in pediatric skull base patients at our institution. Safety and feasibility of the endoscopic approach has previously been demonstrated in children, and this is the first study to directly compare outcomes with open approaches. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: 4 Laryngoscope, 131:996-1001, 2021.

Intraosseous Arteriovenous Fistula Around the Anterior Condylar Confluence as an Occipital Bone Fracture Sequela.

BACKGROUND: Although traumatic dural arteriovenous fistula (AVF) is a rare condition, dural injury associated with skull fracture is one of the major factors for the formation of dural AVF at the skull fracture area. We report a case of de novo intraosseous AVF around the anterior condylar confluence after head injury associated with skull base fracture. CASE DESCRIPTION: A woman in her 70s presented with pulsatile tinnitus 3 months after cerebellar infarction and occipital bone fracture. The appearance of de novo intraosseous AVF was confirmed by magnetic resonance imaging and magnetic resonance angiography and treated with coil embolization, which led to symptomatic relief without recurrence on follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: There is no previous report to our knowledge of intraosseous AVF around the anterior condylar confluence proven to appear after skull fracture. This case demonstrates that head injury associated with skull base fracture could be one etiology of dural AVF around the anterior condylar confluence.

A new radiological classification for the risk assessment of anterior skull base injury in endoscopic sinus surgery.

Keros and Gera classifications are widely used to assess the risk of skull base injury during endoscopic sinus surgery. Although, both classifications are useful preoperatively to stratify risk of patients going for surgery, it is not practical to measure the respective lengths during surgery. In this study, we aimed to propose a new radiological classification (Thailand-Malaysia-Singapore (TMS)) to assess the anatomical risk of anterior skull base injury using the orbital floor (OF) as a reference. A total of 150 computed tomography images of paranasal sinuses (300 sides) were reviewed. The TMS classification was categorized into 3 types by measuring OF to cribriform plate and OF to ethmoid roof. Most patients were classified as TMS type 1, Keros type 2 and Gera class II, followed by patients classified as TMS type 3, Keros type 1 and Gera class 1. TMS has significant correlation with Keros classification (p < 0.05). There was no significant correlation between Keros and Gera classifications (p = 0.33) and between TMS and Gera classifications (p = 0.80). The TMS classification has potential to be used for risk assessment of skull base injury among patients undergoing ESS. It serves as an additional assessment besides the Keros and Gera classifications.

Impact of anterior skull base fracture on lateralized olfactory function.

BACKGROUND: Data on the impact of anterior skull base fractures (aSBF) on lateralized olfactory function are missing. The goal of the study was to investigate olfactory function in patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI) due to aSBF separately for each side and assess the frequency of lateralized smell impairment. METHODS: Retrospective, single center study of olfactory function in 93 patients with aSBF. Olfactory function was assessed by means of the Sniffin' Sticks test battery for each side of the nose, separately. TBI severity was graded according to the Glasgow Coma Scale. Average time interval between olfactory test and trauma was 6.5 years. General olfactory function was defined as the best side out of both nostrils. RESULTS: A total of 50 patients had unilateral and 43 patients bilateral aSBF. The grade of TBI was inversely correlated with olfactory function. General olfactory function was significantly worse in patients with bilateral aSBF compared to patients with unilateral aSBF. Clinically significant side by side differences in olfactory function were found in 18 and 30% respectively for unilateral and bilateral aSBF. Grade of TBI had no significant impact on side differences. Among patients with unilateral aSBF olfactory function was not significantly different between the fractured and the non-fractured side. CONCLUSION: The severity of TBI and bilateral more than unilateral aSBF results in more impaired olfactory function. Lateralized olfactory deficits were not more frequent in any group, regardless of the fracture type and side.

The Frequency of Cranial Base Fractures in Lethal Head Trauma.

The interpretation of cranial base injuries has never been investigated from a purely anthropological perspective. Very little exists in forensic literature in order to interpret the significance of cranial base fractures. We analyzed 296 cases of deaths due to skull-brain injuries. The frequency of vault fractures was 75.7% and that of base fractures was 91.9%. We observed the distribution of cases of death according to manner of death and manner of injury and number of fossae involved. These observations were analytically compared to different variables (age, sex, manner of injury, and mode of injury). The study presented the proportion of base fractures associated with vault fractures, and the frequency of absence of base fracture in subjects with no vault fractures. Interesting associations of base fractures to age and manner of death are shown.