Australia II: A Case Study in Engineering Ethics.

Australia II became the first foreign yacht to win the America's Cup in 1983. The boat had a revolutionary wing keel and a better underwater hull form. In official documents, Ben Lexcen is credited with the design. He is also listed as the sole inventor of the wing keel in a patent application submitted on February 5, 1982. However, as reported in New York Times, Sydney Morning Herald, and Professional Boatbuilder, the wing keel was in fact designed by engineer Peter van Oossanen at the Netherlands Ship Model Basin in Wageningen, assisted by Dr. Joop Slooff at the National Aerospace Laboratory in Amsterdam. Based on telexes, letters, drawings, and other documents preserved in his personal archive, this paper presents van Oossanen's account of how the revolutionary wing keel was designed. This is followed by an ethical analysis by Martin Peterson, in which he applies the American NSPE and Dutch KIVI codes of ethics to the information provided by van Oossanen. The NSPE and KIVI codes give conflicting advice about the case, and it is not obvious which document is most relevant. This impasse is resolved by applying a method of applied ethics in which similarity-based reasoning is extended to cases that are not fully similar. The key idea, presented in Peterson's book The Ethics of Technology (Peterson, The ethics of technology: A geometric analysis of five moral principles, Oxford University Press, 2017), is to use moral paradigm cases as reference points for constructing a "moral map".

[Clinical information, informed consent and medical deontology. A recent relationship]. / Información clínica, consentimiento informado y deontología médica. Una relación reciente.

In Spain, the right to clinical information and informed consent as a practical expression of the principle of autonomy, are legal conquests achieved in the late twentieth century. From the law they have been transferred to the codes of medical deontology. The aim of this work is to study the pace of this transfer. Historical review of the different codes of medical deontology in Spain since the Civil War, seeking the presence of these ideas in them. Until code of medical deontology of 1979, the idea of clinical information did not appear in the contemporary deontological norm, and the rules on consent did so in very restricted cases. As of that date, their appearance is progressive in the successive codes. Currently, both concepts are fully developed in Spanish deontological regulations. Medical Deontology has take on the ideas of patient information and informed consent. This has been a long process which have brought considerable changes the deontological orientations of the traditional form of doctor-patient relationship. In these aspects, medical deontology has drifted, from emphasizing the prudence of the doctor, to emphasize the duty to inform and give ample space to the patient's decisions, which he recognizes as an autonomous and reflective moral agent, capable of taking his own decisions about your health.

Medical Ethics in Radiography.

The medical field often requires radiologic technologists to make complex decisions that affect patients, employers, and colleagues. Technologists must consider practice standards when making choices, and also must act ethically to protect patients' safety and respect their autonomy. To make the most informed and ethical decisions, technologists should know the history of medical ethics, as well as be familiar with philosophical tools and ethical codes that can guide them in their daily practice.

Instituições e personagens: histórias da Medicina no Pará / Institutions and characters: histories of Medicine in Pará

Publicado no âmbito do centenário da atual Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade do Pará, este livro aborda assuntos como os primórdios da Faculdade, expedições da Liverpool School of Tropical medicine, o pionerismo de anna Turan Machado Falcão e as primeiras sociedades e do sindicato médico do Pará. Trata ainda sobre cirurgia, sanatório e asilo, os primeiros médicos formados no Pará, a presença do Pará em Harvard. A história do DAM e dos códigos de ética médica e o hospital de isolamento também são assuntos apresentados nos capítulos. O livro ainda fala sobre Camilo Salgado, Gama Lobo e o Prêmio Raul Leite

Thomas Percival. Discussing the foundation of Medical Ethics.

BACKGROUND AND AIM OF THE WORK: In 1803, the English physician Thomas Percival published Medical Ethics, a work destined to become a milestone in the development of modern codes of medical ethics, starting from the first edition of the American Medical Association's ethical code. Notwithstanding the undeniable influence that this book has exerted upon the codification of the principles of medical ethics, researchers and experts foster different and opposing points of views on its real nature. They question whether Medical Ethics truly belongs to the literary genre of codes of medical ethics or, better yet, to that of medical etiquettes. METHODS: This debate is crucial in the field both of medical history and of medical ethics, with regard not only to Percival's work, but also to the ethical value of the current codes of medical ethics and deontology. RESULTS: The lack of a rigorous philosophical-moral analysis of the current medical codification is reflected in its mere loyalty to the legal regulation, in substantial continuity with the past. However, the constant challenges proposed by the biomedical development, require the need to rethink the traditional conceptual tools of the current codes of medical ethics, with the purpose to achieve new schemes and innovative solutions. CONCLUSIONS: On this perspective, when the codes of medical ethics are worked out by physicians, they could be considered as wrongly titled medical etiquettes. This consideration could regard current codes of medical ethics, that remain faithful to tradition and that would more probably be codes of medical etiquette with a wrong title.

The Physician's Duty to Treat During Pandemics.

Physicians assume a primary ethical duty to place the welfare of their patients above their own interests. Thus, for example, physicians must not exploit the patient-physician relationship for personal financial gain through the practice of self-referral. But how far does the duty to patient welfare extend? Must physicians assume a serious risk to their own health to ensure that patients receive needed care? In the past, physicians were expected to provide care during pandemics without regard to the risk to their own health. In recent decades, however, the duty to treat during pandemics has suffered from erosion even while the risks to physicians from meeting the duty has gone down. After exploring the historical evolution of the duty to treat and the reasons for the duty, I conclude that restoring a strong duty to treat would protect patient welfare without subjecting physicians to undue health risks.

The social value of research: interrogating the paradoxes.

The relation between science and society is, simply put, very complex. In the history of global bioethics, it is the Code of Nuremberg which foregrounded the acute ways in which biomedical/scientific research could (negatively) impact society; this 1947 Code became the point of reference for subsequent research concerning humans. The Code "required that medical experiments on human beings must have the potential to yield fruitful results for the good of society". The Declaration of Helsinki (DoH), 1964 reinstated this concern by stressing that "clinical research cannot be legitimately carried out unless the risks to participants are justified by the importance of the research" - invoking the idea of the "social value" of research. However, in these initial days, "social value" of research was interpreted more in terms of the moral balance of research, a balance to ensure that the benefits of research unambiguously outweighed its risks as far as its participants were concerned.

Oath Taking at U.S. and Canadian Medical School Ceremonies: Historical Perspectives, Current Practices, and Future Considerations.

The widespread use of oaths at medical commencements is a recent phenomenon of the late 20th century. While many are referred to as "Hippocratic," surveys have found that most oaths are modern, and the use of unique oaths has been rising. Oaths taken upon entry to medical school are even more recent, and their content has not been reported. The authors surveyed all Association of American Medical Colleges-member schools in the United States and Canada in 2015 and analyzed oath texts. Of 111 (70.2%) responses, full texts were submitted for 80 commencement and 72 white coat oaths. Previous studies have shown that while oaths before World War II were commonly variations on the original Hippocratic text and subsequently more often variations on the Geneva or Lasagna oath, now more than half of commencement ceremonies use an oath unique to that school or written by that class. With a wider range of oath texts, content elements are less uniformly shared, so that only three elements (respecting confidentiality, avoiding harm, and upholding the profession's integrity) are present in as many as 80% of oaths. There is less uniformity in the content of oaths upon entry to medical school. Consistently all of these oaths represent the relationship between individual physicians and individual patients, and only a minority express obligations to teach, advocate, prevent disease, or advance knowledge. They do not reflect obligations to ensure that systems operate safely, for example. None of the obligations in these oaths are unique to physicians.

[The code of ethics for nurses, history and perspectives]. / Le Code de déontologie des infirmiers, historique et perspectives.

The French decree of 25 November 2016 relating to the code of ethics for nurses reinforces the principles guiding their missions and the corresponding responsibilities. It is the fruit of a collaboration between nurses from all backgrounds heavily involved in the Order. Imbued with the nursing spirit, reflecting the sensitivities and concerns of professionals, it is a unique project and, in every regard, quite remarkable, as it has been produced by a profession which is often reluctant to put pen to paper to express its vision of health.

An Analysis of the Changes in Communication Techniques in the Italian Codes of Medical Deontology.

BACKGROUND AND AIM OF THE WORK: The code of deontology of the Italian National Federation of the Colleges of Physicians, Surgeons and Dentists (FNOMCeO) contains the principles and rules to which the professional medical practitioner must adhere. This work identifies and analyzes the medical-linguistic choices and the expressive techniques present in the different editions of the code, and evaluates their purpose and function, focusing on the first appearance and the subsequent frequency of key terms. METHODS: Various aspects of the formal and expressive revisions of the eight editions of the Codes of Medical Deontology published after the Second World War (from 1947/48 to 2014) are here presented, starting from a brief comparison with the first edition of 1903. Formal characteristics, choices of medical terminology and the introduction of new concepts and communicative attitudes are here identified and evaluated. RESULTS: This paper, in presenting a quantitative and epistemological analysis of variations, modifications and confirmations in the different editions of the Italian code of medical deontology over the last century, enucleates and demonstrates the dynamic paradigm of changing attitudes in the medical profession. CONCLUSIONS: This analysis shows the evolution in medical-scientific communication as embodied in the Italian code of medical deontology. This code, in its adoption, changes and adaptations, as evidenced in its successive editions, bears witness to the expressions and attitudes pertinent to and characteristic of the deontological stance of the medical profession during the twentieth century.

ICOH International Code of Ethics for Occupational Health Professionals: Historical fortune and future perspectives in Italy. / I1 Codice Internazionale di Etica ICOH per gli operatori di Medicina del Lvoro: fortuna storica e prospettive future in Italia.

The Working Group responsible for the Italian translation of the third edition of the International Code of Ethics, appointed by the President of the International Commission on Occupational Health (ICOH), Dr. Jukka Takala, completed last April the revision work. The final text, already available on the ICOH website, has been printed and distributed by the Italian National Institute for Insurance against Accidents at Work (INAIL) at the 79th National Congress of the Italian Society of Occupational Medicine and Industrial Hygiene (SIMLII), in Rome. The curators of this third Italian edition have accomplished the delicate task of adaptation in Italian, taking into account the specificities of the practice of medicine in the Italian work environment. It involves many professionals with diverse roles and responsibilities in the public and private sectors for safety, hygiene, health and environment in relation to work. More than twenty years after the first Italian edition, we trace the evolution of the ICOH International Code of Ethics, in order to focus its birth, national and international distribution, and continuous improvement as well as its ability to direct the stakeholders towards a participatory prevention model, in a legislative framework that has seen over the past two decades a radical change in the Italian world of work.