An Age Group Comparison of Concurrent Hospice Care: A Cost-Effectiveness Analysis.

This study aimed to examine the cost-effectiveness of concurrent hospice care compared with standard care among pediatric patients of different age groups. Using a national Medicaid database of 18 152 pediatric patients enrolled in hospice care between 2011 and 2013, this study calculated and analyzed incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICERs) for concurrent care versus standard hospice care for children of 4 age categories: <1 year, 1 to 5 years, 6 to 14 years, and 15 to 20 years. The results indicated that the total Medicaid cost of hospice care was $3229 per patient per month (PPPM; SD, $8709) for those younger than 1 year, $4793 PPPM (SD, $8178) for those aged 1 to 5 years, $5411 PPPM (SD, $7456) for those aged 6 to 14 years, and $5625 PPPM (SD, $11459) for those aged 15 to 20 years. Incremental cost-effectiveness ratio values across all age groups showed that children enrolled in concurrent care had fewer live discharges but at a higher Medicaid cost of care as compared with those enrolled in standard hospice care. Concurrent hospice care was the most cost-effective in the age groups of <1 year and 1 to 5 years, with ICERs equal to $45 (95% confidence interval [CI], $23-$66) and $49 (95% CI, $8-$76), respectively. For the other older age groups, benefits of enrollment in concurrent care came at a much higher cost: in the age group of 6 to 14 years, ICER was equal to $217 (95% CI, $129-$217), and in the age group of 15 to 20 years, it was $107 (95% CI, $82-$183). Concurrent hospice is an effective way to reduce live discharges but has a higher total Medicaid cost than standard hospice care.

US Medicare Hospice and Palliative Medicine Physician Workforce and Service Delivery in 2008-2020.

CONTEXT: Despite clinical benefits of early palliative care, little is known about Medicare physician workforce specialized in Hospice and Palliative Medicine (HPM) and their service delivery settings. OBJECTIVES: To examine changes in Medicare HPM physician workforce and their service delivery settings in 2008-2020. METHODS: Using the Medicare Data on Provider Practice and Specialty from 2008 to 2020, we identified 2375 unique Medicare Fee-For-Service (FFS) physicians (15,565 physician-year observations) with self-reported specialty in "Palliative Care and Hospice". We examined changes in the annual number of HPM physicians, average number of Medicare services overall and by care setting, total number of Medicare FFS beneficiaries, and total Medicare allowed charges billed by the physician. RESULTS: The number of Medicare HPM physicians increased 2.32 times from 771 in 2008 to 1790 in 2020. The percent of HPM physicians practicing in metropolitan areas increased from 90% to 96% in 2008-2020. Faster growth was also observed in female physicians (52.4% to 60.1%). Between 2008 and 2020, we observed decreased average annual Medicare FFS beneficiaries (170 to 123), number of FFS services (467 to 335), and Medicare allowed charges billed by the physician ($47,230 to $37,323). The share of palliative care delivered in inpatient settings increased from 47% to 68% in 2008-2020; whereas the share of services delivered in outpatient settings decreased from 37% to 19%. CONCLUSION: Despite growth in Medicare HPM physician workforce, access is disproportionately concentrated in metropolitan and inpatient settings. This may limit receipt of early outpatient specialized palliative care, especially in nonmetropolitan areas.

A new model of multidimensional discharge planning: continuity of care for frail and complex inpatients.

OBJECTIVE: Delays in patient discharge can adversely affect hospital and emergency room productivity and increase healthcare costs. The discharge should be structured from the hospital admission towards the most appropriate environment. This study aims to investigate the efficacy of the Unit, named "Continuity of Care Center" (CCC), to guarantee a safest and fastest hospital discharge in frail patients and to test the effect of our team-approach on hospital outcomes (length of stay and hospital mortality). MATERIALS AND METHODS: This is a prospective cohort study carried out in an acute care hospital with 1,558 beds and is equipped with 41 operating theaters. We collected data from October 2016 to June 2019. RESULTS: The time of patient discharge had an important reduction: 15.5±30.8 in the first 3 months vs. 11.0±20.1 in the last 3 months considered. The median of the time of discharge in all 12 months considered was 12 day. The length of stay presented an important reduction from 33.3±47.5 during the first 3 months vs. 28.8±39.5 in the last 3 months of activity of CCC; and a significant reduction of hospital deaths was recorded from 20% during the first 3 months to 14% in the last 3 months of activity of CCC. CONCLUSIONS: Results indicate a constant decrease in patient discharge time and length of hospital stay, with a consequent significant reduction of healthcare costs. According to the estimates of Italian Health Ministry concerning Latium region, every hospitalization day has a mean cost of € 674.00. Thus, the CCC activity has contributed to a reduction of approximately 12,832 days of hospitalization, in the considered period, with an estimated hospital saving of € 8,648,761.

Associations Between End-of-Life Expenditures and Hospice Stay Length Vary by Clinical Condition and Expenditure Duration.

OBJECTIVES: Hospice use reduces costly aggressive end-of-life (EOL) care (eg, repeated hospitalizations, intensive care unit care, and emergency department visits). Nevertheless, associations between hospice stays and EOL expenditures in prior research have been inconsistent. We examined the differential associations between hospice stay duration and EOL expenditures among newly diagnosed patients with cancer, congestive heart failure (CHF), chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and dementia. METHODS: In the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results-Medicare data, we identified 240 246 decedents diagnosed with the aforementioned conditions during 2001 to 2013. We used zero-inflated negative binomial regression models to examine the differential associations between hospice length of services and EOL expenditures incurred during the last 90, 180, and 360 days of life. RESULTS: For the last 360 days of expenditures, hospice stays beyond 30 days were positively associated with expenditures for decedents with COPD, CHF, and dementia but were negatively associated for cancer decedents (all P<.001) after adjusting for demographic and medical covariates. In contrast, for the last 90 days of expenditures, hospice stay duration and expenditures were consistently negatively associated for each of the 4 patient disease groups. CONCLUSIONS: Longer hospice stays were associated with lower 360-day expenditures for cancer patients but higher expenditures for other patients. We recommend that Medicare hospice payment reforms take distinct disease trajectories into account. The relationship between expenditures and hospice stay length also depended on the measurement duration, such that measuring expenditures for the last 6 months of life or less overstates the cost-saving benefit of lengthy hospice stays.

Differences in medical costs for end-of-life patients receiving traditional care and those receiving hospice care: A retrospective study.

BACKGROUND: Hospice care has a positive effect on medical costs. The correlation between survival time after receiving hospice care and medical costs has not been previously investigated in the literature on Taiwan. This study aimed to compare the differences in medical costs between traditional care and hospice care among end-of-life patients with cancer. METHODS: Data from Taiwan's National Health Insurance program on all patients who had passed away between 2010 and 2013 were used. Those whose year of death was between 2010 and 2013 were defined as end-of-life patients. The patients were divided into two groups: traditional care and hospice care. We then analyzed the differences in end-of-life medical cost between the two groups. RESULTS: From 2010 to 2013, the proportion of patients receiving hospice care significantly increased from 22.2% to 41.30%. In the hospice group, compared with the traditional group, the proportions of hospital stays over 14 days and deaths in a hospital were significantly higher, but the proportions of outpatient clinic visits; emergency room admissions; intensive care unit admissions; use of ventilator; use of cardiopulmonary resuscitation; and use of hemodialysis, surgery, and chemotherapy were significantly lower. Total medical costs were significantly lower. A greater number of days of survival for end-of-life patients when receiving hospice care results in higher saved medical costs. CONCLUSION: Hospice care can effectively save a large amount of end-of-life medical costs, and more medical costs are saved when patients are referred to hospice care earlier.

Health Care Administrative Costs in the United States and Canada, 2017.

Background: Before Canada's single-payer reform, its payment system, health costs, and number of health administrative personnel per capita resembled those of the United States. By 1999, administration accounted for 31% of U.S. health expenditures versus 16.7% in Canada. No recent comprehensive analyses of those costs are available. Objective: To quantify 2017 spending for administration by insurers and providers. Design: Analyses of government reports, accounting data that providers file with regulators, surveys of physicians, and census-collected data on employment in health care. Setting: United States and Canada. Measurements: Insurance overhead; administrative expenditures of hospitals, physicians, nursing homes, home care agencies, and hospices. Results: U.S. insurers and providers spent $812 billion on administration, amounting to $2497 per capita (34.2% of national health expenditures) versus $551 per capita (17.0%) in Canada: $844 versus $146 on insurers' overhead; $933 versus $196 for hospital administration; $255 versus $123 for nursing home, home care, and hospice administration; and $465 versus $87 for physicians' insurance-related costs. Of the 3.2-percentage point increase in administration's share of U.S. health expenditures since 1999, 2.4 percentage points was due to growth in private insurers' overhead, mostly because of high overhead in their Medicare and Medicaid managed-care plans. Limitations: Estimates exclude dentists, pharmacies, and some other providers; accounting categories for the 2 countries differ somewhat; and methodological changes probably resulted in an underestimate of administrative cost growth since 1999. Conclusion: The gap in health administrative spending between the United States and Canada is large and widening, and it apparently reflects the inefficiencies of the U.S. private insurance-based, multipayer system. The prices that U.S. medical providers charge incorporate a hidden surcharge to cover their costly administrative burden. Primary Funding Source: None.

"It's Like a Death Sentence but It Really Isn't" What Patients and Families Want to Know About Hospice Care When Making End-of-Life Decisions.

BACKGROUND: Hospice is underutilized, due to both lack of initiation from patients and late referral from clinicians. Prior research has suggested the reasons for underuse are multifactorial, including clinician and patient lack of understanding, misperceptions about the nature of hospice care, and poor communication during end-of-life discussions about hospice care. Little is known about the decisional needs of patients and families engaging in hospice decision-making. OBJECTIVES: To understand the decisional needs of patients and families making decisions about hospice care. METHODS: We conducted focus groups with family caregivers and hospice providers and one-on-one interviews with patients considering or enrolled in hospice care. We identified participants through purposeful and snowball sampling methods. All interviews were transcribed verbatim and analyzed using a grounded theory approach. RESULTS: Four patients, 32 family caregivers, and 27 hospice providers participated in the study. Four main themes around decisional needs emerged from the interviews and focus groups: (1) What is hospice care?; (2) Why might hospice care be helpful?; (3) Where is hospice care provided?; and (4) How is hospice care paid for? DISCUSSION: Hospice may not be the right treatment choice for all with terminal illness. Our study highlights where patients' and families' understanding could be enhanced to assure that they have the opportunity to benefit from hospice, if they so desire.

"Death is inevitable - a bad death is not" report from an international workshop.

Palliative care is an approach meant to improve the quality of life of patients facing life-threatening illness and to support their families. An international workshop on palliative care took place in Caesarea, Israel under the auspices of the National Institute for Health Policy Research on July 4-5th, 2018, with the goal of discussing challenges to the development and integration of palliative care services in Israel. At the workshop, both national and international figures in the field of palliative care and health policy addressed several issues, including truth telling, religious approaches to end of life care, palliative care in the community, pediatric palliative care, Israel's Dying Patient Act, the Ministry of Health's National Plan for palliative care, and challenges in using advance directives. We summarize the topics addressed, challenges highlighted, and directions for further advancement of palliative care in the future, emphasizing the critical role of the Ministry of Health in providing a framework for development of palliative care.

Health System and Beneficiary Costs Associated With Intensive End-of-Life Medical Services.

Importance: Despite recommendations to reduce intensive medical treatment at the end of life, many patients with cancer continue to receive such services. Objective: To quantify expected beneficiary and health system costs incurred in association with receipt of intensive medical services in the last month of life. Design, Setting, and Participants: This retrospective cohort study used data collected nationally from Medicare and the Veterans Health Administration for care provided in fiscal years 2010 to 2014. Participants were 48 937 adults aged 66 years or older who died of solid tumor and were continuously enrolled in fee-for-service Medicare and the Veterans Health Administration in the 12 months prior to death. The data were analyzed from February to August 2019. Exposures: American Society of Clinical Oncology metrics regarding medically intensive services provided in the last month of life, including hospital stay, intensive care unit stay, chemotherapy, 2 or more emergency department visits, or hospice for 3 or fewer days. Main Outcomes and Measures: Costs in the last month of life associated with receipt of intensive medical services were evaluated for both beneficiaries and the health system. Costs were estimated from generalized linear models, adjusting for patient demographics and comorbidities and conditioning on geographic region. Results: Of 48 937 veterans who received care through the Veterans Health Administration and Medicare, most were white (90.8%) and male (98.9%). More than half (58.9%) received at least 1 medically intensive service in the last month of life. Patients who received no medically intensive service generated a mean (SD) health system cost of $7660 ($1793), whereas patients who received 1 or more medically intensive services generated a mean (SD) health system cost of $23 612 ($5528); thus, the additional financial consequence to the health care system for medically intensive services was $15 952 (95% CI, $15 676-$16 206; P < .001). The biggest contributor to these differences was $21 093 (95% CI, $20 364-$21 689) for intensive care unit stay, while the smallest contributor was $3460 (95% CI, $2927-$3880) for chemotherapy. Mean (SD) expected beneficiary costs for the last month of life were $133 ($50) for patients with no medically intensive service and $1257 ($408) for patients with at least 1 medically intensive service (P < .001). Conclusions and Relevance: Given the low income of many elderly patients in the United States, the financial consequences of medically intensive services may be substantial. Costs of medically intensive services at the end of life, including patient financial consequences, should be considered by both physicians and families.

Use of Auditing and Feedback in an Outpatient Hospice Setting: Quality and Pharmacoeconomic Oversight.

BACKGROUND: Clinicians play an important role in containing pharmaceutical spending at the patient level, as well as ensuring efficacy and quality outcomes, yet little research has examined how to achieve this goal. MEASURES: Using auditing and feedback (A&F) as part of a Pharmacy and Therapeutics (P&T) Committee, we evaluated our community-based hospice program's prescribing habits for opioids, antipsychotics, and antidepressants and calculated oral pharmaceutical prescription costs per-patient-day. Quality of care was reflected by patient pain scores in electronic medical records. INTERVENTION: Our P&T Committee adopted an A&F approach to monitor and assess provider prescribing habits and cost. An already-existing pain quality improvement program assessed care quality. OUTCOMES: Pain relief either improved or was maintained while medication costs were reduced by over $1.00 per-patient-day from 2010 to 2011. CONCLUSIONS/LESSONS LEARNED: An active, hospice P&T Committee featuring A&F can significantly affect medication costs for a hospice program while maintaining or improving patient outcomes.

End-of-Life Costs and Hospice Utilization in Patients with Head and Neck Cancer.

The Quality Oncology Practice Initiative has several metrics related to end-of life (EOL) care, including hospice enrollment ≤3 days, with lower scores signaling better performance. Of privately insured patients with head and neck cancer, 3.5% were enrolled in hospice prior to death and 21.3% spent ≤3 days in hospice, indicating aggressive EOL care. Patients with late hospice enrollment had higher spending in the last 30 days of life (DOL). Patients in hospice ≤3 days spent $37,426, while those in hospice >3 days spent $24,418 (P = .002). The largest portion of this difference was attributable to inpatient services. Patients in hospice ≤3 days spent $22,089 on inpatient services in the last 30 DOL, while those in hospice >3 days spent $8361 (P < .001). Further research is needed to determine if more high-value care can be provided with earlier hospice enrollment and to ensure that goal concordance is included in defining high-value care.

Outcomes and Cost of Patients With Terminal Cancer Admitted to Acute Care in the Final 2 Weeks of Life: A Retrospective Chart Review.

BACKGROUND: Patients with terminal conditions are often admitted to the emergency department (ED) for acute medical services, but studies have suggested that multiple ED admissions may negatively impact end-of-life (EOL) care. Research have shown that incorporating palliative care (PC) is integral to optimal EOL care, but it is an aspect of medical practice that is often neglected. The current study sought to provide an overview of health outcomes and hospital costs of patients with cancer admitted to The Ottawa Hospital and/or received acute medical services during their final 2 weeks of life. Cost comparisons and estimates were made between hospital and hospice expenditures. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective chart review of palliative patients who died at The Ottawa Hospital in 2012. A total of 130 patients who visited the ED within 2 weeks of death were included in the analyses. RESULTS: In this cohort of patients, 71% of admitted patients did not have advanced care directives and 85% experienced a metastasis, but only 18% had a PC medical doctor. Patients were hospitalized, on average, for 7 days and hospitalization costs exceeded the estimated hospice cost by approximately 2.5 times (Can$1 041 170.00 at Can$8009.00/patient vs Can$401 570.00 at Can$3089.00/patient, respectively). CONCLUSION: Our study highlighted the importance of PC integration in high-risk patients, such as those in oncology. Patients in our sample had minimal PC involvement, low advanced care directives, and accrued high costs. Based on our analyses, we concluded that these patients would have likely benefited more from hospice care rather than hospitalization.

Have Hospice Costs Increased After Implementation of the Hospice Quality-Reporting Program?

CONTEXT: The Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services Hospice Quality-Reporting Program introduced the requirement that hospices nationwide begin collecting and submitting standardized patient-level quality data on July 1, 2014. OBJECTIVES: This study examined whether this requirement has increased hospice total costs, general costs, and visiting services costs. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional study using data from the 2012 and 2014 Medicare hospice cost reports linked to hospice claims. We measured total costs per patient day (PPD), general costs PPD, and visiting services costs PPD for freestanding hospices. We estimated the incremental costs of operating in 2014 vs. 2012 using hierarchical random effects models and adjusting for year, wage index, care volume, case-mix, and hospice and market characteristics, stratified by hospice ownership type. RESULTS: Both for-profit and nonprofit hospices reported higher total costs PPD and general services costs PPD in 2014 than 2012. Nonprofit hospices also reported higher general costs PPD in 2014 than 2012. In adjusted models, the total costs PPD in 2014 were $10.55 higher than in 2012 for nonprofit hospices and $6.43 higher for for-profit hospices. The increase in general costs PPD and visiting services costs PPD ranged from $3.15 to $5.87 by ownership and type of costs. Both for-profit and nonprofit hospices showed lower costs PPD for all types associated with more patients and longer length of stay. CONCLUSION: Hospice costs increased after the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services Hospice Quality-Reporting Program quality data collection/submission requirement. Complementary studies need to understand whether increased costs brought additional benefits.

Medicare Shared Savings ACOs and Hospice Care for Ischemic Stroke Patients.

OBJECTIVES: Palliative care services have the potential to improve the quality of end-of-life care and reduce cost. Services such as the Medicare hospice benefit, however, are often underutilized among stroke patients with a poor prognosis. We tested the hypothesis that the Medicare Shared Savings Program (MSSP) is associated with increased hospice enrollment and inpatient comfort measures only among incident ischemic stroke patients with a high mortality risk. DESIGN: A difference-in-differences design was used to compare outcomes before and after hospital participation in the MSSP for patients discharged from MSSP hospitals (N = 273) vs non-MSSP hospitals (N = 1490). SETTING: Records from a national registry, Get with the Guidelines (GWTG)-Stroke, were linked to Medicare hospice claims (2010-2015). PARTICIPANTS: Fee-for-service Medicare beneficiaries age 65 and older hospitalized for incident ischemic stroke at a GWTG-Stroke hospital from January 2010 to December 2014 (N = 324 959). INTERVENTION: Discharge from an MSSP hospital or beneficiary alignment with an MSSP Accountable Care Organization (ACO). MEASUREMENTS: Hospice enrollment in the year following stroke. RESULTS: Among patients with high mortality risk, ACO alignment was associated with a 16% increase in odds of hospice enrollment (adjusted odds ratio [OR] = 1.16; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.06-1.26), increasing the probability of hospice enrollment from 20% to 22%. In the low mortality risk group, discharge from an MSSP vs non-MSSP hospital was associated with a decrease in the predicted probability of inpatient comfort measures or discharge to hospice from 9% to 8% (OR = .82; CI = .74-.91), and ACO alignment was associated with reduced odds of a short stay (<7 days) (OR = .86; CI = .77-.96). CONCLUSION: Among ischemic stroke patients with severe stroke or indicators of high mortality risk, MSSP was associated with increased hospice enrollment. MSSP contract incentives may motivate improved end-of-life care among the subgroups most likely to benefit.

Early Accountable Care Organization Results in End-of-Life Spending Among Cancer Patients.

BACKGROUND: Spending on cancer patients is substantial and has increased in recent years. Accountable care organizations (ACOs) are arguably the most important national experiment to control health-care spending. How ACOs are managing patients with cancer at the end of life (EOL) is largely unknown. We conducted this study with the objective of determining whether becoming an ACO is associated with subsequent changes in EOL spending or utilization among patients with cancer. METHODS: Using national Medicare claims from 2011 to 2015, we identified patients who died in 2012 (pre-ACO, n = 12 248) and 2015 (post-ACO, n = 12 248), assigning each decedent to a practice. ACOs were matched to non-ACOs within the same geographic region. We used a difference-in-difference model to examine changes in EOL spending and utilization associated with becoming an ACO in the Medicare Shared Savings Program for beneficiaries with cancer. RESULTS: We found that the introduction of ACOs had no meaningful impact on overall EOL spending in cancer patients (change in overall spending in ACOs = -$1687 vs -$1434 in non-ACOs, difference = $253, 95% confidence interval = -$1809 to $1304, P= .75). We found no changes in total patient spending by cancer type examined or by spending categories, including cancer-specific categories of radiation, therapy, and hospice services. Finally, emergency department visits, inpatient hospitalization, intensive care unit admissions, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, and hospice use did not meaningfully differ between ACO and non-ACO patients. CONCLUSIONS: The introduction of ACOs does not appear to have had any meaningful effect on EOL spending or utilization for patients with a cancer diagnosis.

Health Insurance and Out-of-Pocket Costs in the Last Year of Life Among Decedents Utilizing the ICU.

OBJECTIVES: Use of intensive care is increasing in the United States and may be associated with high financial burden on patients and their families near the end of life. Our objective was to estimate out-of-pocket costs in the last year of life for individuals who required intensive care in the months prior to death and examine how these costs vary by insurance coverage. DESIGN: Observational cohort study using seven waves of post-death interview data (2002-2014). PARTICIPANTS: Decedents (n = 2,909) who spent time in the ICU at some point between their last interview and death. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Two-part models were used to estimate out-of-pocket costs for direct medical care and health-related services by type of care and insurance coverage. Decedents with only traditional Medicare fee-for-service coverage have the highest out-of-pocket spending in the last year of life, estimated at $12,668 (95% CI, $9,744-15,592), second to only the uninsured. Medicare Advantage and private insurance provide slightly more comprehensive coverage. Individuals who spend-down to Medicaid coverage have 4× the out-of-pocket spending as those continuously on Medicaid. CONCLUSIONS: Across all categories of insurance coverage, out-of-pocket spending in the last 12 months of life is high and represents a significant portion of assets for many patients requiring intensive care and their families. Medicare fee-for-service alone does not insulate individuals from the financial burden of high-intensity care, due to lack of an out-of-pocket maximum and a relatively high co-payment for hospitalizations. Medicaid plays an important role in the social safety net, providing the most complete hospital coverage of all the insurance groups, as well as significantly financing long-term care.

Medicare Cost at End of Life.

As the Medicare program struggles to control expenditures, there is increased focus on opportunities to manage patient populations more efficiently and at a lower cost. A major source of expense for the Medicare program is beneficiaries at end of life. Estimates of the percentage of Medicare costs that arise from patients in the last year of life differ, ranging from 13% to 25%, depending on methods and assumptions. We analyze the most recently available Medicare Limited Data Set to update prior studies of end-of-life costs and examine different methods of performing this calculation. Based upon these findings, we conclude that higher estimates that take into account the spending over the 12 months leading up to death more accurately reflect the full cost of a patient's last year of life. Comparing current year costs of decedents with Medicare's current year costs understates the full budgetary impact of end-of-life patients. Because risk-taking entities such as Medicare Advantage plans and Accountable Care Organizations (ACOs) need to reduce costs while improving the quality of care, they should initiate programs to better manage the care of patients with serious or advanced illness. We also calculate costs for beneficiaries dying in different settings and conclude that more effective use of palliative care and hospice benefits offers a lower cost, higher quality alternative for patients at end of life.