Spatiotemporal process of long-distance seed dispersal in a pantropically distributed sea hibiscus group.

Long-distance dispersal (LDD) of seeds plays an essential role in the migration of plants to a new habitat and maintaining gene flow among geographically isolated populations. Pantropical plants with sea-drifted seeds, which have one of the largest distributions in all flowering plants, have achieved their global distribution by LDD. However, the spatiotemporal processes to achieve the wide distribution and the role of LDD in it have not yet been elucidated. In this study, we conducted phylogenomic analyses on the plastome, genome-wide nuclear SNP, and low-copy gene data of Hibiscus tiliaceus and its relatives. The dated phylogeny suggested that global expansion started approximately 4 million years ago (Ma), and species diversification occurred 1 Ma. Plastome phylogeny confirmed the nonmonophyly of the haplotypes in the two widely distributed coastal species, H. tiliaceus and H. pernambucensis. In contrast, genome-wide nuclear SNP phylogenies demonstrated clear genetic segregation among species and/or geographical regions. Ancestral polymorphisms in chloroplast genomes shared among widely distributed species have remained below the range of rapid expansion and speciation of marginal populations. This study demonstrated that the LDD of sea-drifted seeds contributed to the rapid expansion and pantropical distribution of sea hibiscus in the last few million years, and adaptation to local environment or isolation by regional effect after LDD promoted speciation, suppressing gene flow.

A stepwise route to domesticate rice by controlling seed shattering and panicle shape.

Asian rice (Oryza sativa L.) is consumed by more than half of the world's population. Despite its global importance, the process of early rice domestication remains unclear. During domestication, wild rice (Oryza rufipogon Griff.) acquired non-seed-shattering behavior, allowing humans to increase grain yield. Previous studies argued that a reduction in seed shattering triggered by the sh4 mutation led to increased yield during rice domestication, but our experiments using wild introgression lines show that the domesticated sh4 allele alone is insufficient for shattering loss in O. rufipogon. The interruption of abscission layer formation requires both sh4 and qSH3 mutations, demonstrating that the selection of shattering loss in wild rice was not as simple as previously suggested. Here we identified a causal single-nucleotide polymorphism at qSH3 within the seed-shattering gene OsSh1, which is conserved in indica and japonica subspecies but absent in the circum-aus group of rice. Through harvest experiments, we further demonstrated that seed shattering alone did not significantly impact yield; rather, yield increases were observed with closed panicle formation controlled by SPR3 and further augmented by nonshattering, conferred by integration of sh4 and qSH3 alleles. Complementary manipulation of panicle shape and seed shattering results in a mechanically stable panicle structure. We propose a stepwise route for the earliest phase of rice domestication, wherein selection of visible SPR3-controlled closed panicle morphology was instrumental in the sequential recruitment of sh4 and qSH3, which together led to the loss of shattering.

Contrasting genetic signal of recolonization after rainforest fragmentation in African trees with different dispersal abilities.

Although today the forest cover is continuous in Central Africa, this may have not always been the case, as the scarce fossil record in this region suggests that arid conditions might have significantly reduced tree density during the ice ages. Our aim was to investigate whether the dry ice age periods left a genetic signature on tree species that can be used to infer the date of the past fragmentation of the rainforest. We sequenced reduced representation libraries of 182 samples representing five widespread legume trees and seven outgroups. Phylogenetic analyses identified an early divergent lineage for all species in West Africa (Upper Guinea) and two clades in Central Africa: Lower Guinea-North and Lower Guinea-South. As the structure separating the Northern and Southern clades-congruent across species-cannot be explained by geographic barriers, we tested other hypotheses with demographic model testing using δαδι. The best estimates indicate that the two clades split between the Upper Pliocene and the Pleistocene, a date compatible with forest fragmentation driven by ice age climatic oscillations. Furthermore, we found remarkably older split dates for the shade-tolerant tree species with nonassisted seed dispersal than for light-demanding species with long-distance wind-dispersed seeds. Different recolonization abilities after recurrent cycles of forest fragmentation seem to explain why species with long-distance dispersal show more recent genetic admixture between the two clades than species with limited seed dispersal. Despite their old history, our results depict the African rainforests as a dynamic biome where tree species have expanded relatively recently after the last glaciation.

Population genetic structure and connectivity of a riparian selfing herb Caulokaempferia coenobialis at a fine-scale geographic level in subtropical monsoon forest.

BACKGROUND: Rivers and streams facilitate movement of individuals and their genes across the landscape and are generally recognized as dispersal corridors for riparian plants. Nevertheless, some authors have reported directly contrasting results, which may be attributed to a complex mixture of factors, such as the mating system and dispersal mechanisms of propagules (seed and pollen), that make it difficult to predict the genetic diversity and population structure of riparian species. Here, we investigated a riparian self-fertilizing herb Caulokaempferia coenobialis, which does not use anemochory or zoochory for seed dispersal; such studies could contribute to an improved understanding of the effect of rivers or streams on population genetic diversity and structure in riparian plants. Using polymorphic ISSR and cpDNA loci, we studied the effect at a microgeographic scale of different stream systems (a linear stream, a dendritic stream, and complex transverse hydrological system) in subtropical monsoon forest on the genetic structure and connectivity of C. coenobialis populations across Dinghu Mountain (DH) and Nankun Mountain (NK). RESULTS: The results indicate that the most recent haplotypes (DH: H7, H8; NK: h6, h7, h11, h12) are not shared among local populations of C. coenobialis within each stream system. Furthermore, downstream local populations do not accumulate genetic diversity, whether in the linear streamside local populations across DH (H: 0.091 vs 0.136) or the dendritic streamside local populations across NK (H: 0.079 vs 0.112, 0.110). Our results show that the connectivity of local C. coenobialis populations across DH and NK can be attributed to historical gene flows, resulting in a lack of spatial genetic structure, despite self-fertilization. Selfing C. coenobialis can maintain high genetic diversity (H = 0.251; I = 0.382) through genetic differentiation (GST = 0.5915; FST = 0.663), which is intensified by local adaptation and neutral mutation and/or genetic drift in local populations at a microgeographic scale. CONCLUSION: We suggest that streams are not acting as corridors for dispersal of C. coenobialis, and conservation strategies for maintaining genetic diversity of selfing species should be focused on the protection of all habitat types, especially isolated fragments in ecosystem processes.

Dispersal as a result of asymmetrical hybridization between two closely related oak species in China.

Hybridization has played an important role in plant evolution. Less attention has been paid, however, to its role in dispersal. In this study, historical divergence and hybridization were investigated in two closely related Chinese oaks, Quercus mongolica and Q. liaotungensis, to estimate the role that hybridization played in their dispersal. We genotyped 27 Q. mongolica and Q. liaotungensis populations throughout the distributional range of the two oak species, using 14 single-copy nuclear genes and four noncoding chloroplast DNA regions. Bayesian cluster and population tree analyses indicated that there were three groups over all oak populations, namely, Q. mongolica, northwest-northern China (NW-NC) Q. liaotungensis, and northeastern China (NEC) Q. liaotungensis. Approximate Bayesian computation simulation supported an asymmetrical hybridization origin of NEC Q. liaotungensis, after a previous divergence between NW-NC Q. liaotungensis and Q. mongolica. IMa3 analyses suggested that Q. liaotungensis and Q. mongolica diverged in the NW-NC and NEC regions, respectively, and that NEC Q. liaotungensis arose from Q. mongolica, not from NW-NC Q. liaotungensis, and was greatly introgressed by NW-NC Q. liaotungensis. Oak populations in NW-NC and NEC regions held different chloroplast DNA haplotypes, and Q. liaotungensis in NEC shared most haplotypes with Q. mongolica populations, but none with NW-NC Q. liaotungensis populations, suggesting the maternal origin of NEC Q. liaotungensis from Q. mongolica. This study found clear signals of isolation divergence of Q. liaotungensis in NW-NC and Q. mongolica in NEC, and the results suggest that asymmetrical hybridization and introgression from Q. liaotungensis to Q. mongolica, mostly likely via pollen flow, facilitated Q. liaotungensis dispersal to NEC.

Historical biogeography of Acer L. (Sapindaceae): genetic evidence for Out-of-Asia hypothesis with multiple dispersals to North America and Europe.

Biogeography is the study of where, when, and how modern species evolved and diversified. Acer L. (maple) is one of the most diverse and widespread genera in the Northern Hemisphere. It comprises 124-156 species in the world, approximately 80% species of Acer are native in Asia. The current diversity center of Acer is not congruent with the distribution of the oldest fossils of the genus. Therefore, we herein used 84 species and subspecies to reconstruct the phylogeny and investigate the biogeographic history of Acer using nuclear ITS and three cpDNA fragments (psbA-trnH spacer, rpl16 intron, and trnL-trnF spacer) with maximum likelihood, maximum parsimony, and Bayesian inference methods. The analyses showed that the current diversity center and the origin center of Acer is Asia. Additionally, the North American and Euro-Mediterranean species originated from multiple sources from Asia via the North Atlantic Land Bridge and the Bering Land Bridge, and intercontinental migration has mainly occurred since the Miocene. This study not only provides a novel insight of the origin and dispersal routes of Acer but also exemplifies how past climatic changes affect the diversification-rates of Northern Hemisphere forest trees.

Large-scale genetic admixture suggests high dispersal in an insect pest, the apple fruit moth.

Knowledge about population genetic structure and dispersal capabilities is important for the development of targeted management strategies for agricultural pest species. The apple fruit moth, Argyresthia conjugella (Lepidoptera, Yponomeutidae), is a pre-dispersal seed predator. Larvae feed on rowanberries (Sorbus aucuparia), and when rowanberry seed production is low (i.e., inter-masting), the moth switches from laying eggs in rowanberries to apples (Malus domestica), resulting in devastating losses in apple crops. Using genetic methods, we investigated if this small moth expresses any local genetic structure, or alternatively if gene flow may be high within the Scandinavian Peninsula (~850.000 km2, 55o - 69o N). Genetic diversity was found to be high (n = 669, mean He = 0.71). For three out of ten tetranucleotide STRs, we detected heterozygote deficiency caused by null alleles, but tests showed little impact on the overall results. Genetic differentiation between the 28 sampling locations was very low (average FST = 0.016, P < 0.000). Surprisingly, we found that all individuals could be assigned to one of two non-geographic genetic clusters, and that a third, geographic cluster was found to be associated with 30% of the sampling locations, with weak but significant signals of isolation-by-distance. Conclusively, our findings suggest wind-aided dispersal and spatial synchrony of both sexes of the apple fruit moth over large areas and across very different climatic zones. We speculate that the species may recently have had two separate genetic origins caused by a genetic bottleneck after inter-masting, followed by rapid dispersal and homogenization of the gene pool across the landscape. We suggest further investigations of spatial genetic similarities and differences of the apple fruit moth at larger geographical scales, through life-stages, across inter-masting, and during attacks by the parasitoid wasp (Microgaster politus).

Associated evolution of fruit size, fruit colour and spines in Neotropical palms.

Understanding how ecological interactions have shaped the evolutionary dynamics of species traits remains a challenge in evolutionary ecology. Combining trait evolution models and phylogenies, we analysed the evolution of characters associated with seed dispersal (fruit size and colour) and herbivory (spines) in Neotropical palms to infer the role of these opposing animal-plant interactions in driving evolutionary patterns. We found that the evolution of fruit colour and fruit size was associated in Neotropical palms, supporting the adaptive interpretation of seed-dispersal syndromes and highlighting the role of frugivores in shaping plant evolution. Furthermore, we revealed a positive association between fruit size and the presence of spines on palm leaves, bracteas and stems. We hypothesize that interactions between palms and large-bodied frugivores/herbivores may explain the evolutionary relationship between fruit size and spines. Large-bodied frugivores, such as extinct megafauna, besides consuming the fruits and dispersing large seeds, may also have consumed the leaves or damaged the plants, thus simultaneously favouring the evolution of large fruits and defensive structures. Our findings show how current trait patterns can be understood as the result of the interplay between antagonistic and mutualistic interactions that have happened throughout the evolutionary history of a clade.

A plant biostimulant from the seaweed Ascophyllum nodosum (Sealicit) reduces podshatter and yield loss in oilseed rape through modulation of IND expression.

The yield of podded crops such as oilseed rape (OSR) is limited by evolutionary adaptations of the plants for more efficient and successful seed dispersal for survival. These plants have evolved dehiscent dry fruits that shatter along a specifically developed junction at carpel margins. A number of strategies such as pod sealants, GMOs and hybrids have been developed to mitigate the impact of pod shatter on crop yield with limited success. Plant biostimulants have been shown to influence plant development. A challenge in plant biostimulant research is elucidating the mechanisms of action. Here we have focused on understanding the effect of an Ascophyllum nodosum based biostimulant (Sealicit) on fruit development and seed dispersal trait in Arabidopsis and OSR at genetic and physiological level. The results indicate that Sealicit is affecting the expression of the major regulator of pod shattering, INDEHISCENT, as well as disrupting the auxin minimum. Both factors influence the formation of the dehiscence zone and consequently reduce pod shattering. Unravelling the mode of action of this unique biostimulant provides data to support its effectiveness in reducing pod shatter and highlights its potential for growers to increase seed yield in a number of OSR varieties.

Phylotranscriptomics resolves interspecific relationships and indicates multiple historical out-of-North America dispersals through the Bering Land Bridge for the genus Picea (Pinaceae).

A robust phylogeny is prerequisite to understand the evolution and biogeography of organisms. However, ancient and recent evolutionary radiations occurred in many plant lineages, which pose great challenges for phylogenetic analysis, especially for conifers characterized by large effective population sizes and long generation times. Picea is an important component of the dark coniferous forests in the Northern Hemisphere. Previous studies improved our understanding of its evolutionary history, but its interspecific relationships and biogeographic history remain largely unresolved. In the present study, we reconstructed a well-resolved phylogeny of Picea by comparative transcriptomic analysis based on a complete species sampling. The phylogenetic analysis, together with molecular dating and ancestral area reconstruction, further supports the North American origin hypothesis for Picea, and indicates that this genus experienced multiple out-of-North America dispersals by the Bering Land Bridge. We also found that spruces in the Japanese Archipelago have multiple origins, and P. morrisonicola from the Taiwan Island has a close relationship with species from the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau and adjacent regions. Our study provides the first complete phylogeny of Picea at the genomic level, which is important for future studies of this genus.

Seed and pollen dispersal distances in two African legume timber trees and their reproductive potential under selective logging.

The natural regeneration of tree species depends on seed and pollen dispersal. To assess whether limited dispersal could be critical for the sustainability of selective logging practices, we performed parentage analyses in two Central African legume canopy species displaying contrasted floral and fruit traits: Distemonanthus benthamianus and Erythrophleum suaveolens. We also developed new tools linking forward dispersal kernels with backward migration rates to better characterize long-distance dispersal. Much longer pollen dispersal in D. benthamianus (mean distance dp  = 700 m, mp  = 52% immigration rate in 6 km2 plot, s = 7% selfing rate) than in E. suaveolens (dp  = 294 m, mp  = 22% in 2 km2 plot, s = 20%) might reflect different insect pollinators. At a local scale, secondary seed dispersal by vertebrates led to larger seed dispersal distances in the barochorous E. suaveolens (ds  = 175 m) than in the wind-dispersed D. benthamianus (ds  = 71 m). Yet, seed dispersal appeared much more fat-tailed in the latter species (15%-25% seeds dispersing >500 m), putatively due to storm winds (papery pods). The reproductive success was correlated to trunk diameter in E. suaveolens and crown dominance in D. benthamianus. Contrary to D. benthamianus, E. suaveolens underwent significant assortative mating, increasing further the already high inbreeding of its juveniles due to selfing, which seems offset by strong inbreeding depression. To achieve sustainable exploitation, seed and pollen dispersal distances did not appear limiting, but the natural regeneration of E. suaveolens might become insufficient if all trees above the minimum legal cutting diameter were exploited. This highlights the importance of assessing the diameter structure of reproductive trees for logged species.

Phylogeny of the Australian Solanum dioicum group using seven nuclear genes, with consideration of Symon's fruit and seed dispersal hypotheses.

The dioecious and andromonoecious Solanum taxa (the "S. dioicum group") of the Australian Monsoon Tropics have been the subject of phylogenetic and taxonomic study for decades, yet much of their basic biology is still unknown. This is especially true for plant-animal interactions, including the influence of fruit form and calyx morphology on seed dispersal. We combine field/greenhouse observations and specimen-based study with phylogenetic analysis of seven nuclear regions obtained via a microfluidic PCR-based enrichment strategy and high-throughput sequencing, and present the first species-tree hypothesis for the S. dioicum group. Our results suggest that epizoochorous trample burr seed dispersal (strongly linked to calyx accrescence) is far more common among Australian Solanum than previously thought and support the hypothesis that the combination of large fleshy fruits and endozoochorous dispersal represents a reversal in this study group. The general lack of direct evidence related to biotic dispersal (epizoochorous or endozoochorous) may be a function of declines and/or extinctions of vertebrate dispersers. Because of this, some taxa might now rely on secondary dispersal mechanisms (e.g. shakers, tumbleweeds, rafting) as a means to maintain current populations and establish new ones.

Placing the regionally threatened moss Orthodontium gracile in the big picture - Phylogeny, genome incongruence and anthropogenic dispersal in the order Orthodontiales.

The Orthodontiaceae is a small family of predominantly Southern Hemisphere temperate and South East Asian mosses that has a key phylogenetic position for research into the evolution of pleurocarpy. In the United Kingdom it is represented by the rare conservation priority species Orthodontium gracile and the abundant exotic O. lineare, introduced from the Southern Hemisphere around a century ago. Although the two species are superficially very similar and difficult to tell apart in the field, very little is known about how closely they are related or about the phylogeny, biogeography and evolutionary history of the genus Orthodontium as a whole. Phylogenetic inference and divergence time estimation were used to explore relationships within the genus globally, date major lineage splits, detect reticulate evolutionary processes and test monophyly of taxa. It was shown that Orthodontium gracile belongs to a Holarctic and Asian clade that diverged from the exclusively southern temperate lineage of O. lineare approximately 53 Ma and that it is sister to the Himalayan and South Siberian bispecific genus Orthodontopsis, which we now recognise as a single species within Orthodontium, O. lignicola. Orthodontium lignicola is quite distinct from O. gracile morphologically but may have a closely overlapping centre of extant diversity in the Himalaya, in contrast to O. lineare which is morphologically similar but biogeographically dissimilar. The introduced European populations of Orthodontium lineare were shown to share plastid and nuclear haplotypes with four collections from Tasmania and Southern Chile, but to be distinct from other Chilean and South African haplotypes. Finally, well-supported incongruence between nuclear and plastid sequences in some Western North American populations of Orthodontium gracile strongly implies one or more chloroplast capture or horizontal genome transfer events involving this species and the regionally sympatric O. pellucens. An appeal is made for targeting phylogenetic research at the intersection points of practical conservation, taxonomic uncertainty and wider biological questions and for the factoring of historical evolutionary and phylogenetic diversity into conservation assessments.

Complex fine-scale spatial genetic structure in Epidendrum rhopalostele: an epiphytic orchid.

Orchid seeds are presumably dispersed by wind due to their very small size and thus can potentially travel long distances. However, the few related studies indicate that seeds fall close to their mother plants. Because seed dispersal and colonization patterns can have relevant consequences for long-term species persistence, we assessed the fine-scale genetic structure of the epiphytic orchid Epidendrum rhopalostele to provide insight into these patterns. All individuals in the studied population were georeferenced and genotyped with AFLP-markers. Genetic structure was evaluated at two levels (forest and tree) using three approaches: principal coordinates analysis, model-based clustering, and spatial autocorrelation analysis. Results showed two genetic groups, composed of individuals from almost every tree with orchids. Spatial autocorrelation analysis at the forest level found no significant genetic structure when all individuals were considered, but a pattern of genetic patches was revealed when the analysis was performed separately for each group. Genetic patches had an estimated diameter of 4 m and were composed of individuals from more than one tree. A weak genetic structure was detected at the tree level at distances less than 1.5 m. These results suggest that many seeds fall close to the mother plant and become established in the same host tree. Additionally, a sequential colonization process seems to be the predominant mode of expansion, whereby progeny from orchids in one tree colonize neighboring trees. Thus, the existence of two distinct genetic groups and the presence of genetic patches should be considered when seed sampling for ex situ conservation.

Pollen and seed dispersal of Brazil nut trees in the southwestern Brazilian Amazon / Dispersão de pólen e sementes da castanheira no sudoeste da Amazônia brasileira

Pollen and seed dispersal patterns greatly influence the spatial distribution of plant genetic diversity. Microsatellite-based parentage analysis provides accurate estimates of contemporary gene dispersal. Although most tropical trees have been shown to exhibit widespread pollen dispersal, few studies have estimated contemporary gene dispersal after seedling establishment. Bertholletia excelsa (Lecythidaceae) is pollinated by large-bodied bees, while previous seed-tracking experiments suggest their seeds are mainly dispersed across very short distances by scatter-hoarding rodents, who primarily act as seed predators. Here we used parentage analysis to provide contemporary estimates of pollen and seed dispersal in B. excelsa recruits. We examined six 25-ha plots located in two natural stands in the Acre River valley, in the southwestern Brazilian Amazon. We used 11 microsatellite markers to estimate genetic diversity and fixation index parameters in adults, seedlings and saplings. Genetic diversity was moderate and did not differ across size classes or sampling locations. We assigned pollen and seed parents for < 20% of the recruits, indicating that most events of realized gene flow occurred beyond our 25-ha plots. Only 10 parentage assignments were confirmed with 80% confidence. Pollen distance ranged from 33 to 372 m and seed dispersal from 58 to 655 m. Actual seed-dispersal distances were far greater than the estimates obtained in previous seed-tracking experiments. Thus, studies encompassing larger sampling areas are necessary to determine a more representative spatial scale of B. excelsas pollen and seed dispersal capacity in natural stands.

Os padrões de dispersão de pólen e sementes influenciam a distribuição espacial da diversidade genética. Muitas espécies arbóreas tropicais apresentam ampla dispersão de pólen, mas poucos estudos avaliaram fluxo gênico a partir de plântulas. Bertholletia excelsa (Lecythidaceae) é polinizada por abelhas e as sementes são dispersas por roedores do tipo scatter-hoarders (que estocam recursos em diferentes pontos de sua área de vida), que atuam primariamente como predadores de sementes. Experimentos de remoção de sementes tem mostrado que a dispersão de sementes por esses roedores é espacialmente limitada. Nosso objetivo foi obter estimativas de dispersão de pólen e sementes em B. excelsa a partir da análise de parentesco de regenerantes. Nós estudamos seis parcelas de 25 ha, em duas áreas de floresta nativa no vale do Rio Acre, no sudoeste da Amazônia brasileira. Parâmetros de diversidade genética e índice de fixação foram estimados em adultos, varetas e plântulas com 11 marcadores microssatélites. A diversidade genética foi moderada e não diferiu entre classes de tamanho ou entre localidades. A paternidade foi determinada em menos de 20% dos regenerantes, indicando que a maioria dos eventos de fluxo gênico ocorreu em distâncias maiores que as encontradas nas parcelas de 25 ha. As distâncias de pólen variaram de 33 a 372 m e as de dispersão de sementes variaram de 58 a 655 m. As distâncias de dispersão obtidas neste estudo excedem em muito as estimativas obtidas em experimentos de remoção de sementes. Estudos envolvendo áreas maiores são necessários para que possamos aprofundar nosso conhecimento sobre capacidade de dispersão de pólen e sementes em populações naturais de B. excelsa.

Individual-based genetic analyses support asexual hydrochory dispersal in Zostera noltei.

Dispersal beyond the local patch in clonal plants was typically thought to result from sexual reproduction via seed dispersal. However, evidence for the separation, transport by water, and re-establishment of asexual propagules (asexual hydrochory) is mounting suggesting other important means of dispersal in aquatic plants. Using an unprecedented sampling size and microsatellite genetic identification, we describe the distribution of seagrass clones along tens of km within a coastal lagoon in Southern Portugal. Our spatially explicit individual-based sampling design covered 84 km2 and collected 3 185 Zostera noltei ramets from 803 sites. We estimated clone age, assuming rhizome elongation as the only mechanism of clone spread, and contrasted it with paleo-oceanographic sea level change. We also studied the association between a source of disturbance and the location of large clones. A total of 16 clones were sampled more than 10 times and the most abundant one was sampled 59 times. The largest distance between two samples from the same clone was 26.4 km and a total of 58 and 10 clones were sampled across more than 2 and 10 km, respectively. The number of extremely large clone sizes, and their old ages when assuming the rhizome elongation as the single causal mechanism, suggests other processes are behind the span of these clones. We discuss how the dispersal of vegetative fragments in a stepping-stone manner might have produced this pattern. We found higher probabilities to sample large clones away from the lagoon inlet, considered a source of disturbance. This study corroborates previous experiments on the success of transport and re-establishment of asexual fragments and supports the hypothesis that asexual hydrochory is responsible for the extent of these clones.

Different megafauna vary in their seed dispersal effectiveness of the megafaunal fruit Platymitra macrocarpa (Annonaceae).

The world's largest terrestrial animals (megafauna) can play profound roles in seed dispersal. Yet, the term 'megafauna' is often used to encompass a diverse range of body sizes and physiologies of, primarily, herbivorous animals. To determine the extent to which these animals varied in their seed dispersal effectiveness (SDE), we compared the contribution of different megafauna for the large-fruited Platymitra macrocarpa (Annonaceae), in a tropical evergreen forest in Thailand. We quantified 'seed dispersal effectiveness' by measuring the quantity and quality contributions of all consumers of P. macrocarpa fruit. Seed dispersal quantity was the proportion of the crop consumed by each species. Quality was defined as the proportion of seeds handled by each animal taxon that survived to produce a 2-month seedling. Megafauna (elephants, sambar deer, bears) dispersed 78% of seeds that produced seedlings, with 21% dispersed by gibbons (a medium-sized frugivore). The main megafaunal consumers displayed different dispersal strategies. Elephants were the most effective dispersers (37% of seedlings) and they achieved this by being high-quality and low-quantity dispersers. Bears displayed a similar strategy but were especially rare visitors to the trees (24% of the total seedlings produced). Sambar were high-quantity dispersers, but most seeds they handled did not survive and they were responsible for only 17% of seedlings. Gibbons displayed a high SDE relative to their body size, but they probably cannot match the role of elephants despite being more regular consumers of the fruit. The low density and poor regeneration of P. macrocarpa in the study site suggest that current dispersal rates by megafauna are insufficient, possibly reflecting reduced or missing megafauna populations. We show that different megafaunal species disperse seeds in different ways and may make unique contributions to the reproductive success of the plant species.

The relative contributions of seed and pollen dispersal to gene flow and genetic diversity in seedlings of a tropical palm.

Seed and pollen dispersal shape patterns of gene flow and genetic diversity in plants. Pollen is generally thought to travel longer distances than seeds, but seeds determine the ultimate location of gametes. Resolving how interactions between these two dispersal processes shape microevolutionary processes is a long-standing research priority. We unambiguously isolated the separate and combined contributions of these two dispersal processes in seedlings of the animal-dispersed palm Oenocarpus bataua to address two questions. First, what is the spatial extent of pollen versus seed movement in a system characterized by long-distance seed dispersal? Second, how does seed dispersal mediate seedling genetic diversity? Despite evidence of frequent long-distance seed dispersal, we found that pollen moves much further than seeds. Nonetheless, seed dispersal ultimately mediates genetic diversity and fine-scale spatial genetic structure. Compared to undispersed seedlings, seedlings dispersed by vertebrates were characterized by higher female gametic and diploid seedling diversity and weaker fine-scale spatial genetic structure for female gametes, male gametes and diploid seedlings. Interestingly, the diversity of maternal seed sources at seed deposition sites (Nem ) was associated with higher effective number of pollen sources (Nep ), higher effective number of parents (Ne ) and weaker spatial genetic structure, whereas seed dispersal distance had little impact on these or other parameters we measured. These findings highlight the importance maternal seed source diversity (Nem ) at frugivore seed deposition sites in driving emergent patterns of fine-scale genetic diversity and structure.

Habitat loss and fragmentation reduce effective gene flow by disrupting seed dispersal in a neotropical palm.

Habitat loss and fragmentation often reduce gene flow and genetic diversity in plants by disrupting the movement of pollen and seed. However, direct comparisons of the contributions of pollen vs. seed dispersal to genetic variation in fragmented landscapes are lacking. To address this knowledge gap, we partitioned the genetic diversity contributed by male gametes from pollen sources and female gametes from seed sources within established seedlings of the palm Oenocarpus bataua in forest fragments and continuous forest in northwest Ecuador. This approach allowed us to quantify the separate contributions of each of these two dispersal processes to genetic variation. Compared to continuous forest, fragments had stronger spatial genetic structure, especially among female gametes, and reduced effective population sizes. We found that within and among fragments, allelic diversity was lower and genetic structure higher for female gametes than for male gametes. Moreover, female gametic allelic diversity in fragments decreased with decreasing surrounding forest cover, while male gametic allelic diversity did not. These results indicate that limited seed dispersal within and among fragments restricts genetic diversity and strengthens genetic structure in this system. Although pollen movement may also be impacted by habitat loss and fragmentation, it nonetheless serves to promote gene flow and diversity within and among fragments. Pollen and seed dispersal play distinctive roles in determining patterns of genetic variation in fragmented landscapes, and maintaining the integrity of both dispersal processes will be critical to managing and conserving genetic variation in the face of continuing habitat loss and fragmentation in tropical landscapes.

Genetic control of seed shattering during African rice domestication.

Domestication represents a unique opportunity to study the evolutionary process. The elimination of seed dispersal traits was a key step in the evolution of cereal crops under domestication. Here, we show that ObSH3, a YABBY transcription factor, is required for the development of the seed abscission layer. Moreover, selecting a genomic segment deletion containing SH3 resulted in the loss of seed dispersal in populations of African cultivated rice (Oryza glaberrima Steud.). Functional characterization of SH3 and SH4 (another gene controlling seed shattering on chromosome 4) revealed that multiple genes can lead to a spectrum of non-shattering phenotypes, affecting other traits such as ease of threshing that may be important to tune across different agroecologies and postharvest practices. The molecular evolution analyses of SH3 and SH4 in a panel of 93 landraces provided unprecedented geographical detail of the domestication history of African rice, tracing multiple dispersals from a core heartland and introgression from local wild rice. The cloning of ObSH3 not only provides new insights into a critical crop domestication process but also adds to the body of knowledge on the molecular mechanism of seed dispersal.