Pharmaceutical intervention for hypertension in a rural district of the Republic of Zambia: a model-based economic evaluation.

OBJECTIVES: In Zambia, 19.1% of the adult population had elevated blood pressure. Hence, the Ministry of Health in Zambia designated the improvement of hypertension (HTN) care services as a priority policy. However, there are limited data on cost-effective interventions to address HTN and their budget impact in sub-Saharan Africa. The objective of this paper is to investigate the cost-effectiveness of primary-level interventions for HTN (pharmaceutical treatments) compared with no treatment, and the budget impact, in the Chongwe District, rural Zambia. METHODS: A cost-utility analysis was undertaken from the perspective of healthcare provider, employing a cohort Markov model with a lifetime horizon. The model was developed and populated with evidence from the literature, including novel locally collected cost data. The analysis was run for the overall population aged 40 years and above and for subpopulations stratified by three levels of risk and gender in Chongwe District by using cost data directly collected. A probabilistic analysis was performed to assess the probability of cost-effectiveness. RESULTS: The dominant treatment for the general population was a combination therapy of diuretics and calcium blockers. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio was US$1114 compared with no treatment. This was the most cost-effective first-line medication for HTN for all subgroup populations, except for the subgroups classified as low-risk defined by WHO. The estimated annual budget impact was US$1 015 605 in total if all HTN patients in Chongwe District received the most cost-effective treatment. Considering only material costs, the annual total budget was US$29 435. CONCLUSION: The most cost-effective first-line medication for HTN in rural Zambia was the combination therapy of diuretics and calcium blockers for the general population. From the perspective of budget impact, local government could need to secure approximately US$30 000 to facilitate the delivery of the most cost-effective HTN medications to the entire population over 40 years in need.

Cost-effectiveness of single-pill and separate-pill administration of antihypertensive triple combination therapy: a population-based microsimulation study.

BACKGROUND: Single-pill combination (SPC) of three antihypertensive drugs has been shown to improve adherence to therapy compared with free combinations, but little is known about its long-term costs and health consequences. This study aimed to evaluate the lifetime cost-effectiveness profile of a three-drug SPC of an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor, a calcium-channel blocker, and a diuretic vs the corresponding two-pill administration (a two-drug SPC plus a third drug separately) from the Italian payer perspective. METHODS: A cost-effectiveness analysis was conducted using multi-state semi-Markov modeling and microsimulation. Using the healthcare utilization database of the Lombardy Region (Italy), 30,172 and 65,817 patients aged ≥ 40 years who initiated SPC and two-pill combination, respectively, between 2015 and 2018 were identified. The observation period extended from the date of the first drug dispensation until death, emigration, or December 31, 2019. Disease and cost models were parametrized using the study cohort, and a lifetime microsimulation was applied to project costs and life expectancy for the compared strategies, assigning each of them to each cohort member. Costs and life-years gained were discounted by 3%. Probabilistic sensitivity analysis with 1,000 samples was performed to address parameter uncertainty. RESULTS: Compared with the two-pill combination, the SPC increased life expectancy by 0.86 years (95% confidence interval [CI] 0.61-1.14), with a mean cost differential of -€12 (95% CI -9,719-8,131), making it the dominant strategy (ICER = -14, 95% CI -€15,871-€7,113). The cost reduction associated with the SPC was primarily driven by savings in hospitalization costs, amounting to €1,850 (95% CI 17-7,813) and €2,027 (95% CI 19-8,603) for patients treated with the SPC and two-pill combination, respectively. Conversely, drug costs were higher for the SPC (€3,848, 95% CI 574-10,640 vs. €3,710, 95% CI 263-11,955). The cost-effectiveness profile did not significantly change according to age, sex, and clinical status. CONCLUSIONS: The SPC was projected to be cost-effective compared with the two-pill combination at almost all reasonable willingness-to-pay thresholds. As it is currently prescribed to only a few patients, the widespread use of this strategy could result in benefits for both patients and the healthcare system.

Ultrafiltration versus diuretics for the treatment of fluid overload in patients with heart failure: a hospital cost analysis.

Background: Heart failure (HF) is a common, serious disease in the US and Europe. Patients with HF often require treatment for fluid overload, resulting in costly inpatient visits; however, limited evidence exists on the costs of alternative treatments. This study performed a cost-analysis of ultrafiltration (UF) vs diuretic therapy (DIUR-T) for patients with HF from the hospital perspective. Methods: The model used clinical data from the literature and hospital data from the Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project to follow a decision-analytic framework reflecting treatment decisions, probabilistic outcomes, and associated costs for treating patients with HF and hypervolemia with veno-venous UF or intravenous DIUR-T. A 90-day timeframe was considered to account for hospital readmissions beyond 30 days. Sensitivity and scenario analyses were performed to gauge the robustness of the results. Results: Although initial hospitalization costs were higher, fluid removal by UF reduced hospital readmission days, leading to cost savings of $3,975 (14.4%) at the 90-day follow-up (UF costs, $23,633; DIUR-T costs, $27,608). Conclusions: UF is a viable alternative to DIUR-T when treating fluid overload in HF patients because it reduces hospital readmission rates and durations, which substantially lowers costs over a 90-day period compared to DIUR-T.

Cost-Effectiveness Analysis of Patiromer and Spironolactone Therapy in Heart Failure Patients with Hyperkalemia.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Certain patients with heart failure (HF) are unable to tolerate spironolactone therapy due to hyperkalemia. Patiromer is a novel agent used to treat hyperkalemia and has been shown to be efficacious, safe, and well-tolerated. The potential clinical outcomes and economic value of using patiromer and spironolactone in patients with HF unable to otherwise tolerate spironolactone due to hyperkalemia are unclear. The objective of this analysis was to model the potential pharmacoeconomic value of using patiromer and spironolactone in patients with a history of hyperkalemia that prevents them from utilizing spironolactone. METHODS: We performed a cost-effectiveness analysis of treatment with patiromer, spironolactone, and an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor (ACEI) in patients with New York Heart Association (NYHA) class III-IV HF compared with ACEI alone. A Markov model was constructed to simulate a cohort of 65-year-old patients diagnosed with HF from the payer perspective across the lifetime horizon. Clinical inputs were derived from the RALES and OPAL-HK randomized trials of spironolactone and patiromer, respectively. Utility estimates and costs were derived from the literature and list prices. Outcomes assessed included hospitalization, life expectancy, and quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs), costs, and the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER). One-way and probability sensitivity analyses were performed to test the robustness of the model findings. RESULTS: Treatment with patiromer-spironolactone-ACEI was projected to increase longevity compared with ACEI alone (5.29 vs. 4.62 life-years gained, respectively), greater QALYs (2.79 vs. 2.60), and costs (US$28,200 vs. US$18,200), giving an ICER of US$52,700 per QALY gained. The ICERs ranged from US$40,000 to US$85,800 per QALY gained in 1-way sensitivity analyses. CONCLUSION: Our results suggest that the use of spironolactone-patiromer-ACEI may provide clinical benefit and good economic value in patients with NYHA class III-IV HF unable to tolerate spironolactone due to hyperkalemia.

Comparison of salt with low-dose furosemide and carperitide for treating acute decompensated heart failure: a single-center retrospective cohort study.

Hypertonic saline with furosemide has been proposed for a long time as an effective therapeutic option for the treatment of acute decompensated heart failure (ADHF). We previously reported the efficacy of continuous infusion of 1.7 % hypertonic saline plus low-dose furosemide in treatment for ADHF. Although this therapeutic strategy can be a useful option for effective decongestion in treatment for ADHF, there is no study that assesses the effect and safety of saline supplementation compared with standard therapy in Japan. The aim of this study was to investigate the efficacy, safety, and cost-effectiveness of 1.7 % hypertonic saline plus low-dose furosemide infusion compared with carperitide. We compared clinical outcomes, adverse events, and cost for patients receiving carperitide (carperitide group) with those for patients receiving 1.7 % hypertonic saline plus low-dose furosemide (salt group) during the initial hospitalization for ADHF. The cost analysis was performed on the basis of the previous report about cost-effectiveness of acute heart failure. A total of 175 ADHF patients received either carperitide (n = 111) or 1.7 % hypertonic saline plus low-dose furosemide infusion (n = 64) as initial treatment. There were no differences in length of hospital stay (27 ± 19 vs. 25 ± 16 day, p = 0.170) and infusion period (7.2 ± 6.1 vs. 8.4 ± 7.5 day, p = 0.474) between the two groups. The incidence of rehospitalization did not differ at 1 month (7.6 vs. 6.6 %, p = 1.000) and 1 year (36.8 vs. 37.7 %, p = 0.907) between the two groups. The Kaplan-Meier curves revealed no significant difference for 1 year all-cause mortality between the two groups (log-rank, p = 0.724). The single hospitalization cost was 95,314 yen lower and the yearly hospitalization cost 125,628 yen lower in the salt group compared with the carperitide group. Thus, intravenous 1.7 % hypertonic saline plus low-dose furosemide infusion is as effective as carperitide in terms of clinical outcome and is a cost-effective therapeutic strategy for the treatment of ADHF.

Impact of Oral Treatment on Physical Function in Older Patients Hospitalized for Heart Failure: A Randomized Clinical Trial.

BACKGROUND: Frailty is a characteristic of older patients with heart failure, who undergo functional decline during hospitalization. At present, continuous intravenous infusion of diuretics is widely used for the treatment of hospitalized patients with heart failure. In this prospective, randomized, open-label controlled trial, we tested whether an early switch from continuous intravenous infusion therapy to oral treatment with diuretics prevents functional decline in patients hospitalized for heart failure. METHODS: A total of 59 patients hospitalized for heart failure were randomized to either continuous intravenous infusion (n = 30) or oral medication (n = 29) within 48 h of admission. The primary outcome was the Barthel index, a universally utilized scale to assess the functional status of patients in their activities of daily living, assessed at 10 days. Secondary outcomes included the number of daily steps counted using pedometers and average hospital costs. RESULTS: Barthel index scores were significantly higher in the oral medication group than in the intravenous group (78.1 ± 20.8 vs. 59.6 ± 34.2, P = 0.029). The number of daily steps was significantly higher in the oral treatment group relative to the intravenous group (P < 0.001), and the average hospital costs were similar between the randomized groups. Multivariate analysis revealed that oral medication was a significant independent predictor of Barthel index score at day 10, and the number of daily steps was significantly associated with the patient's functional outcome. CONCLUSIONS: This trial showed that, in patients hospitalized for heart failure, oral medication increased functional independence during hospitalization compared with sustained continuous intravenous infusion, most likely because the release from the infusion line enabled the patients to be more mobile. Notably, these beneficial effects were achieved without increasing hospital costs.

Patterns of prescription antihypertensive drug utilization and adherence to treatment guidelines in the city of Novi Sad.

BACKGROUND/AIM: Hypertension is one of the leading causes of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality and more than a half of all health insurance expenditures for reimbursed medicines are allocated to antihypertensive drugs in Serbia. The aim of this study was to identify the antihypertensive drug utilization patterns among hypertensive outpatients in the city of Novi Sad, Serbia, determine the adherence to clinical guidelines and address the economic aspects of current prescribing practices. METHODS: This retrospective observational study was conducted in Novi Sad over a period of six months. The data on the number of packages, size their, and retail price of antihypertensives issued on prescription in outpatients with the diagnosis of essential arterial hypertension was collected from all state-owned pharmacies in Novi Sad. Drug consumption was analyzed using the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical (ATC)/ defined daily dose (DDD) methodology. RESULTS: Total consumption of antihypertensives issued on prescription over a 6-month period in the city of Novi sad, Serbia was 283.48 DDD per 1,000 inhabitans per day (DID). Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEi) were most commonly prescribed drugs, and were used 3 times more often than calcium channel blockers and 5 times more than beta-blockers. The consumption of diuretics and angiotensin receptor antagonists was low within all the groups of outpatients. Both national and international guidelines state superiority and effectiveness of diuretics in treatment of hypertension in the elderly, but their consumption was unreasonable low despite the fact that over 70% of all antihypertensive drugs in the city of Novi Sad were dispensed in people aged > 60. The use of more expensive ACEi was observed despite the guidelines deeming all the drugs of this class equally effective in treatment of hypertension. CONCLUSION: Large differences in utilization of different groups of antihypertensive agents were noted in this study. Underutilization of valuable, efficacious, and cost-effective thiazide diuretics and overuse of expensive ACE inhibitors is unjustifiable. There is a potential for large savings with switching to low-price ACEi, modeling the practice of Scandinavian countries.

Wealth-related Inequality in Utilization of Antihypertensive Medicines in Iran: an Ecological Study on Population Level Data.

BACKGROUND: We aim to evaluate the trend of national and sub-national (provincial) utilization pattern of antihypertensive medicines in the Iranian population in the past decade and evaluate whether there is any wealth-related inequality in utilization of these medicines among different provinces. METHOD: Either fixed effect or random effect linear panel data model was used to check the effect of wealth index on utilization of all antihypertensive medicines and each class, adjusting for other covariates including years of schooling, urbanization, mean age, and food type of provinces. The principal component analysis was applied to make summery measures for covariates using available national datasets. RESULTS: The effect of wealth category on the utilization of all antihypertensive medicines among Iranian provinces was positive and significant (0.84; 95% CI: 0.09, 1.59). Accordingly as subgroup analysis, in BBs and CCBs classes, the effects of wealth category on utilization of medicines were positive and significant (0.36; 95% CI: 0.12, 0.60 and 0.27; 95% CI: 0.07, 0.40, respectively). However in ACEIs and Diuretics classes, the effects of wealth category were positive but not significant. In ARBs class, the effect of wealth on utilization was negative and not significant (-0.04; 95% CI: -0.27, 0.18). CONCLUSION: According to this study, an inequality could be observed in Iran related to wealth category in utilization of total antihypertensive medicines between provinces.

Implementation of a diuretic stewardship program in a pediatric cardiovascular intensive care unit to reduce medication expenditures.

PURPOSE: The implementation of a diuretic stewardship program in a pediatric cardiovascular intensive care unit (ICU) is described. METHODS: This retrospective study compared the use of i.v. chlorothiazide and i.v. ethacrynic acid in pediatric cardiovascular surgery patients before and after implementation of a diuretic stewardship program. All pediatric patients admitted to the pediatric cardiovascular service were included. The cardiovascular surgery service was educated on formal indications for specific diuretic agents, and the diuretic stewardship program was implemented on January 1, 2013. Under the stewardship program, i.v. ethacrynic acid was indicated in patients with a sulfonamide allergy, and i.v. chlorothiazide was considered appropriate in patients receiving maximized i.v. loop diuretic doses. A detailed review of the pharmacy database and medical records was performed for each patient to determine i.v. chlorothiazide and i.v. ethacrynic acid use and expenditures, appropriateness of use, days using a ventilator, and cardiovascular ICU length of stay. RESULTS: After implementation of diuretic stewardship, the use of i.v. chlorothiazide decreased by 74% (531 fewer doses) while i.v. ethacrynic acid use decreased by 92% (47 fewer doses), resulting in a total reduction of $91,398 in expenditures on these diuretics over the six-month study period and an estimated annual saving of over $182,000. The median number of days using a ventilator and the length of ICU stay did not differ significantly during the study period. CONCLUSION: Implementation of a diuretic stewardship program reduced the use of i.v. chlorothiazide and i.v. ethacrynic acid without adversely affecting clinical outcomes such as ventilator days and length of stay in a pediatric cardiovascular ICU.

Economic evaluation of single-pill combination of indapamide and amlodipine in the treatment of arterial hypertension in the Polish setting.

BACKGROUND: Arterial hypertension is a common disorder that affects around 9 million adults in Poland. Single-pill combinations (SPCs) for the treatment of arterial hypertension have significant advantages over the free combinations, resulting in lower risk of cardiovascular events and lower consumption of medical resources. The current ESC/ESH 2013 guidelines for the first time recommend treatment with a combination of thiazide-like diuretic with calcium channel blocker. Currently, no such combination is reimbursed from public funds in Poland. AIM: To assess the economic value of treatment with SPC of indapamide and amlodipine (Tertens-AM®) for hypertensive patients compared with free combination therapy (FC), in the Polish setting. METHODS: As there are currently no published data directly estimating the additional effect of using indapamide + amlo-dipine SPC vs. FC, two extreme approaches are presented: with difference in effectiveness due to improved adherence to the treatment estimated from published studies on other molecules used in hypertension such as SPCs and FCs - the base-case approach (1); and assuming no difference of effectiveness or adherence between SPC and FC of indapamide and amlodipine - the conservative approach (2). Modelling was carried out based on the Markov process in lifetime horizon. In the base-case approach, with the difference in effectiveness between SPC and FC, it was assumed that the differences in compliance translate into the differences in systolic blood pressure. Patients' characteristics were correlated with the risk of events associated with cardiovascular disease, based on the prediction algorithms from the Framingham Heart Study. Costs were considered from a National Health Fund (NHF) perspective and NHF and patient's perspective, and therefore direct medical costs were only included. RESULTS: The treatment with SPC of indapamide and amlodipine in place of FC resulted in 7.6 additional days of life in full health and longer overall patient survival by 2.9 days. The replacement of FC with SPC would result in national savings from both NHF perspective and NHF and patient's perspective, irrespective of the assumption of the difference in adherence between SPC and FC. The savings would amount to 1.602-3.954 million PLN and 16.498-19.186 million PLN from NHF perspective and NHF and patient's perspective, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The treatment with SPC of indapamide and amlodipine for hypertensive patients was found to be dominant over FC or at least less expensive than treatment with FC when the difference in effectiveness was neglected. The replacement of FC with SPC would result in savings from both NHF perspective and NHF and patient's perspective.

[Efficiency of initiation with ambrisentan versus bosentan in the treatment of pulmonary arterial hypertension]. / Eficiencia del inicio con ambrisentan frente a bosentan en el tratamiento de la hipertensión arterial pulmonar.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the efficiency of initiation with endothelin receptor antagonists, ambrisentan or bosentan, followed by sequential combination with phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitors and prostanoids in the treatment of pulmonary arterial hypertension, from the Spanish National Health System perspective. METHODS: A Markov model was developed based on the four New York Heart Association functional classes. A panel of three experts reached a consensus on patient management based on clinical practice. Patients revised their treatment every 12 weeks, based on their health status and previous medication records. Pharmacological treatment costs and costs associated with very frequent adverse events (AE) were considered in a horizon of 60 weeks. Outcomes were measured in qualityadjusted life years (QALY). A probabilistic sensitivity analysis was performed. RESULTS: No clinically relevant differences in QALY per-patient and year were found for initiation with ambrisentan and bosentan: 0.6853 and 0.6902, respectively. Initiation with ambrisentan resulted in lower pharmacological treatment and AE management costs: ?35,550 and ?117 versus ?40,224 and ?171. In the sensitivity analysis, initiation with ambrisentan resulted in a negative significant cost difference: ?-4,982; CI95%[?- 8,014; ?-2,500]; while no significant differences in QALY were found: -0.0044; CI95%[-0.0189; 0.0101]. CONCLUSIONS: Initiation with ambrisentan followed by sequential combination with phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitors and prostanoids yields comparable outcomes at lower costs than initiation with bosentan.

Objetivo: Se pretende evaluar la eficiencia del tratamiento secuencial de combinación de la hipertensión arterial pulmonar iniciado con antagonistas del receptor de la endotelina, ambrisentan o bosentan, seguido de inhibidores de la fosfodiesterasa- 5 y prostanoides, desde la perspectiva del Sistema Nacional de Salud. Métodos: Se desarrolló un modelo de Markov basado en las cuatro clases funcionales de la New York Heart Association. Un panel de tres expertos alcanzó un consenso sobre el manejo del paciente basado en la práctica clínica. Los pacientes revisaron su tratamiento cada 12 semanas, en función de su estado de salud y de la medicación recibida previamente. Se incluyeron costes farmacológicos y costes asociados al manejo de eventos adversos (EA) muy frecuentes, en un horizonte de 60 semanas. Los resultados se expresaron en términos de los años de vida ajustados por calidad (AVAC). Se realizó un análisis de sensibilidad probabilístico. Resultados: No se encontraron diferencias clínicamente relevantes en los AVAC por paciente y año para el inicio con ambrisentan y bosentan: 0,6853 y 0,6902, respectivamente. El inicio con ambrisentan resultó en un coste farmacológico y asociado al manejo de EA menor: 35.550 ??y 117 ??frente a 40.224 ??y 171 ?. En el análisis de sensibilidad, el inicio con ambrisentan presentó una diferencia de costes totales negativa y significativa: -4.982 ?; IC95%[-8.014 ?; -2.500 ?]; mientras que no se detectaron diferencias significativas en los AVAC: -0,0044; IC95%[-0,0189; 0,0101]. Conclusiones: El tratamiento secuencial de combinación de la HAP iniciado con ambrisentan, seguido de inhibidores de la fosfodiesterasa- 5 y prostanoides, proporciona resultados en salud comparables y menores costes que el tratamiento iniciado con bosentan.

Costs of current antihypertensive therapy in Switzerland: an economic evaluation of 3,489 patients in primary care.

QUESTION UNDER STUDY: Due to greater life expectancy, costs of medication have increased within the last decade. This investigation assesses health care expenditures needed to manage the current state of blood pressure (BP) control in Switzerland. OBJECTIVES: a) average day therapy costs (DTC) of substances, b) actual DTC of currently prescribed antihypertensive therapy, c) monetary differences of treatment regimens within different BP-groups and different high risk patients, d) estimated compliance-related financial loss/annum and adjusted costs/annum. Single-pill-combinations appear to be useful to increase patient's compliance, to reduce side effects and to bring more patients to their blood pressure goal. METHODS: Costs were identified based on data from the Swiss department of health. We calculated DTC for each patient using prices of the largest available tablet box. RESULTS: The average antihypertensive therapy in Switzerland currently costs CHF 1.198 ± 0.732 per day. On average beta blockers were the cheapest substances, followed by angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ARBs), calcium channel blockers and diuretics. The widest price ranges were observed within the class of ARBs. Most expensive were patients with impaired renal function. Throughout all stages, single-pill-combinations appeared to be significantly cheaper than dual-free-combinations. Stage-II-hypertension yielded the highest costs for dual free combination drug use. The actual costs for all patients observed in this analysis added up to CHF 1,525,962. Based on a compliance model, only treatment amounting to CHF 921,353 is expected to be actually taken. CONCLUSION: A disproportionately high healthcare cost is expected due to compliance reasons. The prescription of mono-therapies appears to be a major cost factor, thus, the use of single-pill-combination therapy can be considered as a suitable approach to saving costs throughout all BP- stages.

Treatment adherence, clinical outcomes, and economics of triple-drug therapy in hypertensive patients.

Poor antihypertensive treatment adherence adversely affects blood pressure control. We analyzed US health plan data to assess the impact of fixed- versus loose-dose triple-combination therapy on adherence, clinical, and economic outcomes. Patients initiating triple therapy with an angiotensin receptor blocker, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor, or beta blocker plus amlodipine and hydrochlorothiazide comprised three cohorts. Within-cohort comparisons were made between fixed-dose combinations of two antihypertensives plus a second pill (two pills) or three separate pills. Outcomes included adherence, cardiovascular events, health care resource use, and costs for patients with ≥ 12 months follow-up. A total of 16,290 patients were matched. Patients receiving two pills were more likely to be adherent (P < .001) and less likely to discontinue treatment (P < .001) across all cohorts. Therapy with two versus three pills resulted in significantly lower adjusted risk of cardiovascular events (hazard ratio = 0.76, P = .005) in the beta blocker cohort only. Total adjusted health care costs were significantly lower for two- versus three-pill therapy in the beta blocker cohort only (cost ratio = 0.74 overall, P < .01; 0.71 hypertension-attributable, P < .01). In patients with hypertension requiring triple therapy, fixed-dose combinations that lower pill burden may improve adherence (seen across all cohorts) and clinical outcomes (seen in the beta blocker cohort) without increasing health care costs.

The managed hypertensive: the costs of blood pressure control in a Nigerian town.

BACKGROUND: The health systems designed to cater for patients with chronic illnesses like hypertension have not fully evaluated the burden of long term therapy and its effect on patient outcome. This study assessed the financial implication and cost effectiveness of hypertension treatment in a rural Nigerian town. METHODS: A chart review of 250 rural patients with primary hypertension at a regional hospital in Southwest Nigeria was conducted. RESULTS: The mean age of patients was 61 ± 11.2 years, 59.2% were females, 67% had an income < ₦20,000 ($133.3) monthly. Diuretics and alpha-Methyl Dopa were the most prescribed drugs. The median number of prescribed drugs was two (range1-4). Mean cost of treatment was ₦1440 ± 560 ($9.6 ± 3.7) with 52.8% spending ≥ 10% of their income on treatment. The most cost effective therapies were Methyl Dopa and Diuretics with Cost-effectiveness ratios of 8 and 12.8 respectively. Patients with co-morbidities, stage 2 hypertension and those on three or four drug regimen had significantly higher treatment costs. CONCLUSION: The financial burden of long term antihypertensive therapy appears substantial, cost reduction strategies are needed to optimize hypertension treatment in societies with limited resources. Hypertensive management therefore requires a response adapted to the local context.

Improving the cost-effectiveness of cardiovascular disease prevention in Australia: a modelling study.

BACKGROUND: Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death worldwide. Like many countries, Australia is currently changing its guidelines for cardiovascular disease prevention from drug treatment for everyone with 'high blood pressure' or 'high cholesterol', to prevention based on a patient's absolute risk. In this research, we model cost-effectiveness of cardiovascular disease prevention with blood pressure and lipid drugs in Australia under three different scenarios: (1) the true current practice in Australia; (2) prevention as intended under the current guidelines; and (3) prevention according to proposed absolute risk levels. We consider the implications of changing to absolute risk-based cardiovascular disease prevention, for the health of the Australian people and for Government health sector expenditure over the long term. METHODS: We evaluate cost-effectiveness of statins, diuretics, ACE inhibitors, calcium channel blockers and beta-blockers, for Australian men and women, aged 35 to 84 years, who have never experienced a heart disease or stroke event. Epidemiological changes and health care costs are simulated by age and sex in a discrete time Markov model, to determine total impacts on population health and health sector costs over the lifetime, from which we derive cost-effectiveness ratios in 2008 Australian dollars per quality-adjusted life year. RESULTS: Cardiovascular disease prevention based on absolute risk is more cost-effective than prevention under the current guidelines based on single risk factor thresholds, and is more cost-effective than the current practice, which does not follow current clinical guidelines. Recommending blood pressure-lowering drugs to everyone with at least 5% absolute risk and statin drugs to everyone with at least 10% absolute risk, can achieve current levels of population health, while saving $5.4 billion for the Australian Government over the lifetime of the population. But savings could be as high as $7.1 billion if Australia could match the cheaper price of statin drugs in New Zealand. CONCLUSIONS: Changing to absolute risk-based cardiovascular disease prevention is highly recommended for reducing health sector spending, but the Australian Government must also consider measures to reduce the cost of statin drugs, over and above the legislated price cuts of November 2010.

Ultrafiltration for acute decompensated heart failure: cost, reimbursement, and financial impact.

In addition to the proposed pathophysiologic mechanisms whereby ultrafiltration (UF) can be advantageous over diuretics in the treatment of heart failure, there can also be financial and resource-utilization reasons for pursuing this extracorporeal strategy. In those cases in which the clinical outcomes would be equivalent, however, the decision whether to pursue UF will depend greatly on the anticipated hospitalization length of stay (LOS), the patient population's pay or mix, the needs and costs for high-acuity (eg, intensive care unit) care, and widely varying expenses for the equipment and disposable supplies. From a fiscal perspective, the financial viability of UF programs revolves around how improvements in LOS, resource utilization, and readmissions relate to the typical diagnosis-driven (eg, diagnosis-related group) reimbursement. We analyzed the impact of these various factors so as to better understand how the intensity (and expense) of pharmaceutical and extracorporeal therapies impacts a single admission, as well as to serve as the basis for developing strategies for optimizing long-term care.

Impact of restrictive prescription plans on heart failure medication use.

BACKGROUND: Prescription plans frequently use restrictive strategies to control drug expenditures. Increased restrictions may reduce access to evidence-based therapy among patients with chronic disease. We sought to evaluate the impact of increased restrictions on medication use among heart failure (HF) patients. METHODS AND RESULTS: We conducted a population-based cohort study of administrative data from 3 Canadian provinces. During 1998 to 2001, Quebec (QC) had a minimally restrictive plan, whereas Ontario (ON) and British Columbia (BC) had more restrictive prescription plans. We evaluated drug use at 30 days of discharge stratified by prescription plan. Provincial rates of filled prescriptions for HF drugs in QC, ON, and BC were 62%, 58%, and 47% for angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors; 34%, 22%, and 16% for beta-blockers; 9%, 5%, and 3% for angiotensin receptor blockers; and 79%, 76%, and 62% for loop diuretics, respectively. In multivariate analyses, patients residing in provinces with restrictive plans were less likely to be prescribed drugs that were restricted, such as beta-blockers (odds ratio, 0.53; 95% CI, 0.46 to 0.60; 0.36, 0.29 to 0.44, for ON and BC, respectively) and angiotensin receptor blockers (0.50, 0.45 to 0.56; 0.38, 0.32 to 0.46, for ON and BC, respectively), than drugs with no restrictions, such as loop diuretics (0.81, 0.74 to 0.88; 0.40, 0.36 to 0.45, for ON and BC, respectively) and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (0.80, 0.75 to 0.86; 0.47, 0.43 to 0.52, for ON and BC, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: Among HF patients, residing in a province with a more restrictive prescription plan may be associated with lower use of restricted HF medications over and above the expected regional differences in HF drug use across provinces.

Cost-consequences of ultrafiltration for acute heart failure: a decision model analysis.

BACKGROUND: Ultrafiltration for heart failure may reduce costs associated with acute heart failure by decreasing rehospitalization rates compared to intravenous diuretics. METHODS AND RESULTS: We developed a decision-analytic model to explore the clinical outcomes and associated costs of ultrafiltration compared to intravenous diuretics for index and subsequent acute heart failure hospitalizations to 90 days from index hospitalization. We evaluated the model from societal, Medicare, and hospital payer perspectives. Base-case probabilities and costs were derived from the Ultrafiltration versus Intravenous Diuretics for Patients Hospitalized for Acute Decompensated Congestive Heart Failure clinical trial, Medicare reimbursement schedules, and published data. From a societal perspective, treatment with ultrafiltration had an 86% probability of being more expensive than intravenous diuretics in probabilistic sensitivity analysis, with a base-case estimate of $13 469 per patient treated with ultrafiltration compared to $11 610 per patient treated with intravenous diuretics. Cost estimates were most influenced by length of index hospitalization, daily cost of rehospitalization, number of days rehospitalized, and number and cost of ultrafiltration filters. From a Medicare payer perspective, ultrafiltration had a >99% probability of being cost saving. From a hospital perspective, there was a 97% probability ultrafiltration was more expensive. Our model suggested similar 90-day mortality rates between treatment arms. CONCLUSIONS: Despite a reduction in rehospitalization rates, it is unlikely ultrafiltration results in cost savings from a societal perspective. The discordance in cost between societal, Medicare, and hospital perspectives underscores the importance of payer perspective in formulating strategies and reimbursement structures to reduce heart failure hospitalizations.

Costs of eprosartan versus diuretics for treatment of hypertension in a geriatric population: an observational, open-label, multicentre study.

BACKGROUND: Diuretics are considered to be agents of first choice when treating hypertension in the elderly because of their clinical efficacy and, in particular, their low cost. Indeed, the latter consideration has been used by health resource managers to promote the use of diuretics. However, when considering the costs of treating hypertension in a population it is also necessary to assess the adverse effects that diuretics produce, particularly in elderly people. OBJECTIVE: To compare the overall expenditure associated with the treatment of hypertension (specifically the angiotensin II type 1 receptor antagonist eprosartan vs diuretics) in an elderly population, taking into consideration not only the drug acquisition costs but also the adverse effects of treatment and the costs associated with such adverse effects. METHODS: This was a prospective, observational, nonrandomized, open-label, multicentre study based in eight community health centres and the Hypertension Unit of the University Hospital of Salamanca, Spain. The study included 220 hypertensive geriatric outpatients (males and females aged >or=65 years) referred from general practitioners and the Hypertension Unit, with a mean age of 71.8 years and distributed into two groups: one (n = 90) treated with diuretics and the other (n = 130) treated with eprosartan. Following an initial clinical assessment of patients at the beginning of the study, monitoring of treatment continued for 1 year with follow-up consultations scheduled for 3, 6 and 12 months. Both the costs relating to acquisition of the drugs and the costs derived from secondary adverse effects of drug treatment were included in the analysis. RESULTS: The response to the antihypertensive therapy was similar in both groups. In patients taking diuretics, adverse events resulted in increased use of healthcare resources because of urinary incontinence, purchase of adsorbents, hyponatraemia and the need to admit two patients to hospital. The patient/day cost was euro 1.05 for the group treated with diuretics and euro 0.98 for the group treated with eprosartan (year of costing 2006). CONCLUSION: In the geriatric population, the acquisition cost of the prescribed diuretics is not representative of the actual antihypertensive treatment expenditure. According to the results obtained in our study, the overall costs of eprosartan therapy were no different to those of diuretics, despite the fact that eprosartan had a higher acquisition cost. This is consistent with a more favourable safety profile for eprosartan, which may possibly contribute to improved prescription compliance. This conclusion should be taken into consideration when evaluating economic restrictions on the use of drugs.