Horticulture as a profession for middle-class German and Austrian women, 1890-1940.

Women seeking to work in horticulture in the early twentieth century were the beneficiaries of developments put in motion by the late nineteenth-century women's rights movement. From the 1860s, feminists and social reformers in Europe and America promoted the opening of higher education to women. After success on this front, by 1900, women's advocates pushed for expanding work opportunities suitable for middle-class women, including in horticulture. This article contributes to the historiography of women and gender in horticulture and agriculture by tracing the opening of horticultural and agricultural schools and employment opportunities for women in Germany and Austria. The analysis shows that while the new schools were modeled on earlier examples in Britain, the programs' curricula were based on that of the German and Austrian agricultural colleges. This European expansion of science-based horticultural education provided middle-class women with occupational prospects that proved more fruitful than university degrees until the rise of anti-Semitism in the years leading up to World War II.

Success or failure? Pathologists persecuted under National Socialism and their careers after emigrating to the United States.

This study examines the biographies of pathologists persecuted by the National Socialists after their emigration from the German Reich to the USA. The work is based on primary sources from various archives and a systematic evaluation of secondary literature on the persons concerned. The study yields five central results: (1) Out of 118 identified persecuted pathologists, a total of 91 persons left the German Reich, 60 of them demonstrably to the USA. (2) The majority of the pathologists immigrated to the USA between 1938 and 1941. (3) A good two thirds of the pathologists were (again) employed in the USA as university teachers, the majority in the leading position of Full Professor. (4) The preferred area of employment was the East Coast of the USA. (5) The labor market situation was particularly favorable for specialized pathologists. It can be concluded that the majority of the emigrated pathologists studied succeeded in continuing or even expanding their professional careers in the USA, with existing academic networks playing a noticeable role. Pathology thus occupies a special position in the context of the migration history of persecuted physicians under National Socialism.

Progress toward gender equality in the United States has slowed or stalled.

We examine change in multiple indicators of gender inequality for the period of 1970 to 2018. The percentage of women (age 25 to 54) who are employed rose continuously until ∼2000 when it reached its highest point to date of 75%; it was slightly lower at 73% in 2018. Women have surpassed men in receipt of baccalaureate and doctoral degrees. The degree of segregation of fields of study declined dramatically in the 1970s and 1980s, but little since then. The desegregation of occupations continues but has slowed its pace. Examining the hourly pay of those aged 25 to 54 who are employed full-time, we found that the ratio of women's to men's pay increased from 0.61 to 0.83 between 1970 and 2018, rising especially fast in the 1980s, but much slower since 1990. In sum, there has been dramatic progress in movement toward gender equality, but, in recent decades, change has slowed and on some indicators stalled entirely.

Tendências estruturais do mundo do trabalho no Brasil / Structural trends in the world of work in Brazil

Resumo Através de breve recuperação histórica busca-se descrever as principais tendências do mundo do trabalho no Brasil. A ênfase do ensaio focaliza a atual transição antecipada para a sociedade de serviços, cuja alteração significativa pode ser observada no próprio funcionamento do mercado de trabalho. Também se considera a predominância do massivo desemprego aberto, da ampliação da subutilização da força de trabalho e da generalização da precarização nas ocupações em função da ausência de crescimento econômico e do retorno das reformas neoliberais. O resultado tem sido a polarização crescente no interior do mundo do trabalho.

Abstract Through a brief historical recovery, the article seeks to describe the main trends in the world of work in Brazil. The emphasis of the article focuses on the current early transition to the service society, whose significant change can be observed in the operation of the labor market itself. Also, it considers the predominance of massive open unemployment, the expansion of the underutilization of the labor force and the generalization of precariousness in professions due to the absence of economic growth and the return of the neoliberal reforms. The result has been the increasing polarization within the world of work.

Structural trends in the world of work in Brazil. / Tendências estruturais do mundo do trabalho no Brasil.

Through a brief historical recovery, the article seeks to describe the main trends in the world of work in Brazil. The emphasis of the article focuses on the current early transition to the service society, whose significant change can be observed in the operation of the labor market itself. Also, it considers the predominance of massive open unemployment, the expansion of the underutilization of the labor force and the generalization of precariousness in professions due to the absence of economic growth and the return of the neoliberal reforms. The result has been the increasing polarization within the world of work.

Através de breve recuperação histórica busca-se descrever as principais tendências do mundo do trabalho no Brasil. A ênfase do ensaio focaliza a atual transição antecipada para a sociedade de serviços, cuja alteração significativa pode ser observada no próprio funcionamento do mercado de trabalho. Também se considera a predominância do massivo desemprego aberto, da ampliação da subutilização da força de trabalho e da generalização da precarização nas ocupações em função da ausência de crescimento econômico e do retorno das reformas neoliberais. O resultado tem sido a polarização crescente no interior do mundo do trabalho.

The unsustainability of occupational based model diagrams.

Background: Occupation-based models are generic explanations of occupational engagement. Their associated diagrams are conceptual tools that represent the key concepts and their interrelationships, which have withstood substantial shifts in the profession's knowledge base and scope over the last 30-40 years.Aims: We aim to bring into question the sustainability of the diagrams used to represent models.Methods: Intellectual history and semiotic analysis are combined as tools for examining the history of selected occupation-based models and the convention of representing them diagrammatically. Our critique employs a hermeneutically inspired semiotic technique to scrutinise the diagrams as stand-alone symbolic objects.Results: We argue that the rigid categorisation and oversimplified structure of diagrams keeps the profession pinned to dated perspectives based in positivism and dualism, bypassing the real, lived experiences of people. Our critique highlights the ontological absences from diagrammatic representations of occupation-based models.Conclusions: The continued practice of depicting models with diagrams needs to change, to create space to integrate other theory and perspectives, such as a more fundamentally human, ontological perspective.Significance: An ontological perspective is important for practice to advance past the dualistic or pluralistic stance the profession has held for decade, to understand how people experience their world rather than how the profession sees a person's world.

Historical perspective on physical employment standards.

BACKGROUND: When one thinks of jobs with physical employment standards, the first thoughts typically center around firefighting, law enforcement, and military jobs. However, there are 100s of arduous jobs that exist in the public and private sectors that range from moderately demanding to strenuous. The Bureau of Labor Statistics reported that 28% of the workforce in the United States performs physically demanding jobs that involve construction, machinery installation and repair, public safety, and other professions. OBJECTIVE: This paper provides a historical perspective of physical employment standards for hiring workers into these arduous jobs, how we arrived at our current knowledge base, and the challenges faced today when determining and implementing physical employment standards. METHOD: This narrative review draws on evidence from 62 published sources. RESULTS: This paper focuses on the need for a multidisciplinary approach to identifying job requirements, the professions (e.g., medical, psychology, physiology) that underpin the methodologies, and the knowledge used by current researchers. Descriptions of test and cut score development, legal issues, and challenges for the future also are highlighted.

Migrant mortality differences in the 2000s in Belgium: interaction with gender and the role of socioeconomic position.

BACKGROUND: Belgium has a long history of migration. As the migrant population is ageing, it is crucial thoroughly to document their health. Many studies that have assessed this, observed a migrant mortality advantage. This study will extend the knowledge by probing into the interaction between migrant mortality and gender, and to assess the role of socioeconomic position indicators in this paradox. METHODS: Individually linked data of the 2001 Belgian Census, the National Register and death certificates for 2001-2011 were used. Migrant origin was based on both own and parents' origin roots. We included native Belgians and migrants from the largest migrant groups aged 25 to 65 years. Absolute and relative mortality differences by migrant origin were calculated for the most common causes of death. Moreover, the Poisson models were adjusted for educational attainment, home ownership and employment status. RESULTS: We observed a migrant mortality advantage for most causes of death and migrant groups, which was strongest among men. Adjusting for socioeconomic position generally increased the migrant mortality advantage, however with large differences by gender, migrant origin, socioeconomic position indicator and causes of death. CONCLUSIONS: Adjusting for socioeconomic position even accentuated the migrant mortality advantage although the impact varied by causes of death, migrant origin and gender. This highlights the importance of including multiple socioeconomic position indicators when studying mortality inequalities. Future studies should unravel morbidity patterns too since lower mortality not necessarily implies better health. The observed migrant mortality advantage suggests there is room for improvement. However, it is essential to organize preventative and curative healthcare that is equally accessible across social and cultural strata.

Racial discrimination in Britain, 1969-2017: a meta-analysis of field experiments on racial discrimination in the British labour market.

Field experiments represent the gold standard for determining whether discrimination occurs. Britain has a long and distinguished history of field experiments of racial discrimination in the labour market, with pioneering studies dating back to 1967 and 1969. This article reviews all the published reports of these and subsequent British field experiments of racial discrimination in the labour market, including new results from a 2016/17 field experiment. The article finds enduring contours of racial discrimination in Britain. Firstly, there is an enduring pattern of modest discrimination against white minorities of European heritage in contrast to much greater risks of discrimination faced by the main non-white groups, suggesting a strong racial component to discrimination. Secondly, while there is some uncertainty about the magnitude of the risks facing applicants with Chinese and Indian names, the black Caribbean, black African and Pakistani groups all face substantial and very similar risks of discrimination. Thirdly, there is no significant diminution in risks of discrimination over time either for Caribbeans or for South Asians as a whole. These results are broadly in line with those from the ethnic penalties literature, suggesting that discrimination is likely to be a major factor explaining the disproportionately and enduringly high unemployment rates of ethnic minorities.

Precarização do trabalho da enfermeira: militância profissional sob a ótica da imprensa / Precarización del trabajo de enfermeras: militancia profesional bajo la óptica de la prensa / Precariousness of the work of the nurse: professional militancy from the perspective of the press

Resumo Objetivo Analisar a militância profissional de enfermeiras frente à precarização do trabalho apresentada pela mídia impressa baiana nas décadas de 1970 e 1980. Métodos Pesquisa histórico-documental, com abordagem qualitativa, cuja fonte foi o jornal baiano A Tarde. O recorte temporal abarca marcos históricos como a criação do Conselho Federal de Enfermagem e suas seções regionais (1973); a criação do Sindicato dos Enfermeiros do Estado da Bahia (1981); e a aprovação da Lei do Exercício Profissional (1986). O contexto nacional era o período da ditadura militar, que adotava um modelo de proteção social e caminhava para a abertura política Utilizou-se os termos de busca "Enfermeira" e "Enfermeiro", resultando em 24 reportagens. A análise de conteúdo na modalidade temática embasou a organização dos dados. Resultados A militância profissional de enfermeiras frente à precarização do trabalho se fez presente na mídia por meio das entidades representativas, evidenciada pelos seguintes aspectos: Desvalorização da força de trabalho, marcada pela baixa remuneração e substituição de enfermeiras por pessoal sem qualificação adequada; Sobrecarga de trabalho, evidenciada pelo subdimensionamento e qualificação deficiente; e busca por determinação legal da jornada de trabalho e do piso salarial. Conclusão As enfermeiras utilizaram-se da mídia para denunciar e conscientizar a sociedade sobre os determinantes da precarização do trabalho, porém, as ações efetivas de combate foram pouco abordadas. A atuação militante esteve concentrada no âmbito das entidades representativas, não sendo evidenciado um movimento coletivo das enfermeiras.

Resumen Objetivo Analizar la militancia profesional de enfermeras frente a la precarización del trabajo presentada por los medios de comunicación impresos del estado de Bahía en la década de los setenta y ochenta. Métodos Investigación histórica y documental, con enfoque cualitativo, cuya fuente fue el periódico bahiano A Tarde. El recorte temporal abarca marcos históricos como la creación del Consejo Federal de Enfermería y sus secciones regionales (1973), la creación del Sindicato de Enfermeros del Estado de Bahía (1981) y la aprobación de la Ley de Ejercicio Profesional (1986). El contexto nacional era el período de la dictadura militar, que adoptaba un modelo de protección social y caminaba hacia la apertura política. Se utilizaron los términos de búsqueda "enfermera" y "enfermero", que dio como resultado 24 reportajes. La organización de los datos se basó en el análisis de contenido en la modalidad temática. Resultados La militancia profesional de enfermeras frente a la precarización del trabajo se hizo presente en los medios de comunicación a través de las entidades representativas, evidenciada por los siguientes aspectos: desvalorización de la fuerza de trabajo, marcada por la baja remuneración y reemplazo de enfermeras por personal sin la cualificación adecuada; sobrecarga de trabajo, demostrada en el subdimensionamiento y cualificación deficiente; y la búsqueda de determinación legal de la jornada de trabajo y del piso salarial. Conclusión Las enfermeras utilizaron los medios de comunicación para denunciar y concientizar a la sociedad sobre los determinantes de la precarización del trabajo, pero las acciones efectivas del combate fueron poco abordadas. La actuación militante estuvo concentrada en el ámbito de las entidades representativas y no se observó un movimiento colectivo de enfermeras.

Abstract Objective To analyze the professional militancy of nurses in the face of the precariousness of the work, presented by the Bahian print media in the 1970s and 1980s. Methods Historical-documentary research, with a qualitative approach, whose source was the Bahia newspaper A Tarde. The time continuum includes historical landmarks, such as the: creation of the Federal Nursing Council and its regional sections (1973); creation of the Union of Nurses of the State of Bahia (1981); and the approval of the Professional Exercise Law (1986). The national context was the period of the military dictatorship, which adopted a model of social protection and moved towards a political opening. The search terms "Enfermeira" and "Enfermeiro" were used, resulting in 24 reports. The content analysis in the thematic modality supported the organization. Results The professional nurse militancy confronted by the precariousness of work was present in the media through the representative entities, evidenced by the following aspects: devaluation of the workforce, marked by low remuneration and replacement of nurses by personnel without adequate qualification; work overload, evidenced by understaffing and poor qualification; and the search for legal determination of the working day and minimum wage. Conclusion Nurses used the media to denounce and make society aware of the determinants of the precariousness of work, but the effective actions of combat were minimally approached. The militant activity was concentrated in the scope of the representative entities, but did not demonstrate a collective movement of the nurses.

One hundred years of discrimination research in the Journal of Applied Psychology: A sobering synopsis.

Employment discrimination-a legal, social, moral, and practical problem-has been a persistent focus of narrow scholarship in the Journal of Applied Psychology since its inception. Indeed, this article identifies the environmental characteristics, conceptual underpinnings, dominant methodologies, research questions and findings across 508 articles published on discrimination in the journal over the last 100 years. Emergent themes document signs of stability and change in 3 eras: an era wherein discrimination research was itself discriminatory (1917-1969), the heyday of discrimination research (1970-1989), and an era of unsteady progress (1990-2014). This synthesis suggests that, although increasingly sophisticated methodological approaches have been applied to this topic, the targets of focus and theories driving research have largely been static. Additionally, research published on discrimination in the Journal of Applied Psychology has often trailed too far behind the times. Specific recommendations for advancing the psychological study of employment discrimination in applied contexts are provided. (PsycINFO Database Record

Tendencies of Woman Doctors Registered in Japan during the Taisho Era.

The Taisho-Era (1912 to 1926) was a period during which Japanese women increasingly took part in various social activities and employment. The author surveyed the registered woman-doctors listed in the official gazette and the journal of the Japanese Society of Woman Doctors from the first to the 10th years of the Taisho-Era (1912 to 1921) and investigated their medical life-times, including with regard to their husbands and family surroundings, hobbies, and so on. According to the author, there were 467 woman doctors during the first 10 years of the Taisho-Era, far more than the 239 during the Meiji-Era (1886 to 1912). Immediately after medical registration they had a tendency to choose employment in large cities such as Tokyo because there were many medical facilities suitable' for clinical training there. After several years of this training, some of them moved their activities to the countryside. The 1923 Great Kanto Earthquake caused tremendous damagp,to people, including the woman doctors, who were affected by the collapse of buildings and fires (this subject is developed in a separate paper).

Trends in Determinants of Entry into the Academic Career: The Case of South Korea, 1980-2010.

Substantial research documents the determinants of entry into the academic career, yet little is known about how these determinants have evolved over time. Using data from a large sample of Korean scholars who received their doctoral degrees between 1980 and 2010, we estimate discrete-time event history models of transitioning to an academic position in any academic field. Results indicate that universalistic characteristics, such as publication record, strongly affect subsequent career success, but so do particularistic factors, including doctoral institution prestige. Since the 1980s, the influence of doctoral degree prestige increased substantially more than the influence of one's publication record on higher education employment, implying that the rising importance of particularistic factors has outpaced growing consideration of universalistic characteristics in Korean academia. However, the importance of gender on academic employment has declined since the early 2000s, suggesting that the implementation of employment quotas for female professors may have stymied gender discrimination.

Opting Out and Leaning In: The Life Course Employment Profiles of Early Baby Boom Women in the United States.

Most literature on female employment focuses on the intersection between women's labor supply and family events such as marriage, divorce, or childbearing. Even when using longitudinal data and methods, most studies estimate average net effects over time and assume homogeneity among women. Less is known about diversity in women's cumulative work patterns over the long run. Using group-based trajectory analysis, I model the employment trajectories of early Baby Boom women in the United States from ages 20 to 54. I find that women in this cohort can be classified in four ideal-type groups: those who were consistently detached from the labor force (21 %), those who gradually increased their market attachment (27 %), those who worked intensely in young adulthood but dropped out of the workforce after midlife (13 %), and those who were steadily employed across midlife (40 %). I then explore a variety of traits associated with membership in each of these groups. I find that (1) the timing of family events (marriage, fertility) helps to distinguish between groups with weak or strong attachment to the labor force in early adulthood; (2) external constraints (workplace discrimination, husband's opposition to wife's work, ill health) explain membership in groups that experienced work trajectory reversals; and (3) individual preferences influence labor supply across women's life course. This analysis reveals a high degree of complexity in women's lifetime working patterns, highlighting the need to understand women's labor supply as a fluid process.

Rethinking industrial citizenship: the role and meaning of work in an age of austerity.

T. H. Marshall in his famous tract Citizenship and Social Class wrote briefly about what he called 'industrial citizenship', a type of belonging rooted in the workplace. Here Marshall's ideas are developed alongside a consideration of Durkheim's Professional Ethics and Civic Morals together with research material from the Guinness Company. It shows the way the Company actively sought to create 'Guinness citizenship' within its London brewery. The article draws out the ways in which the significance and potential of work based citizenship for ameliorating the ills of industrial society are clearly articulated in mid-twentieth century Britain and echo earlier neglected Durkheimian sociological ideas on work. These ideas have real potential to inform contemporary academic and policy debates about the nature of capitalism and the form and content of work now and in the future.