Myostatin's marvels: From muscle regulator to diverse implications in health and disease.

Myostatin, a member of the transforming growth factor-ß superfamily, is a pivotal regulator of skeletal muscle growth in mammals. Its discovery has sparked significant interest due to its multifaceted roles in various physiological processes and its potential therapeutic implications. This review explores the diverse functions of myostatin in skeletal muscle development, maintenance and pathology. We delve into its regulatory mechanisms, including its interaction with other signalling pathways and its modulation by various factors such as microRNAs and mechanical loading. Furthermore, we discuss the therapeutic strategies aimed at targeting myostatin for the treatment of muscle-related disorders, including cachexia, muscular dystrophy and heart failure. Additionally, we examine the impact of myostatin deficiency on craniofacial morphology and bone development, shedding light on its broader implications beyond muscle biology. Through a comprehensive analysis of the literature, this review underscores the importance of further research into myostatin's intricate roles and therapeutic potential in human health and disease.

Levothyroxine sodium tablets reversed Hashimoto thyroiditis-induced kidney injury, muscle injury, and lipid metabolism disorder: A case report and literature review.

RATIONALE: Hashimoto thyroiditis (HT), a common cause of hypothyroidism, has shown an increasing incidence in recent years, particularly among women. In addition to the common complications such as lipid metabolism disorders, patients with HT may also experience some serious complications, acute kidney injury and severe muscle damage for instance. This article explored the effectiveness of levothyroxine sodium tablets (L-T4) replacement therapy in severe complications of hypothyroidism, including treatment dosage, duration of complication recovery, and whether additional treatment is needed. PATIENT CONCERNS, DIAGNOSES, AND INTERVENTIONS: We described a case of a 52-year-old woman with HT who exhibited kidney injury, muscle injury, and lipid metabolism disorders. The increased levels of serum creatinine, creatine kinase, cholesterol, triglyceride, low density lipoprotein cholesterol, high density lipoprotein cholesterol, and the decreased levels of estimated glomerular filtration rate were obviously observed. This patient was started on L-T4 (75 and 100 µg, alternate). OUTCOMES AND LESSONS: Following a two-month treatment, the serum creatine kinase level decreased to within normal range. The estimated glomerular filtration rate level was restored, and the serum creatinine level was down-regulated, although slightly higher than the normal range. L-T4 partially reversed HT-induced the disorders of muscle, renal function, and lipid profile of this patient and remarkably alleviated her HT-related symptoms.

Development of a local controlled release system for therapeutic proteins in the treatment of skeletal muscle injuries and diseases.

The present study aims to develop and characterize a controlled-release delivery system for protein therapeutics in skeletal muscle regeneration following an acute injury. The therapeutic protein, a membrane-GPI anchored protein called Cripto, was immobilized in an injectable hydrogel delivery vehicle for local administration and sustained release. The hydrogel was made of poly(ethylene glycol)-fibrinogen (PEG-Fibrinogen, PF), in the form of injectable microspheres. The PF microspheres exhibited a spherical morphology with an average diameter of approximately 100 micrometers, and the Cripto protein was uniformly entrapped within them. The release rate of Cripto from the PF microspheres was controlled by tuning the crosslinking density of the hydrogel, which was varied by changing the concentration of poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEG-DA) crosslinker. In vitro experiments confirmed a sustained-release profile of Cripto from the PF microspheres for up to 27 days. The released Cripto was biologically active and promoted the in vitro proliferation of mouse myoblasts. The therapeutic effect of PF-mediated delivery of Cripto in vivo was tested in a cardiotoxin (CTX)-induced muscle injury model in mice. The Cripto caused an increase in the in vivo expression of the myogenic markers Pax7, the differentiation makers eMHC and Desmin, higher numbers of centro-nucleated myofibers and greater areas of regenerated muscle tissue. Collectively, these results establish the PF microspheres as a potential delivery system for the localized, sustained release of therapeutic proteins toward the accelerated repair of damaged muscle tissue following acute injuries.

Statins in hereditary myopathies: to give or not to give.

Hyperlipidemia is not uncommon in patients with hereditary myopathies who get older and also in several conditions in which it is frequently observed. Thus, using the common cholesterol reducing medications of the stains group could be considered. However, the side effects of these drugs include myalgia, myopathy and rhabdomyolysis typically associated with high serum creatine kinase (CK). Because high CK levels are very frequently found in hereditary myopathies, physicians are reluctant to use statins in such patients. Reviewing the literature about statin side effects in hereditary myopathies does not provide a clear evidence about the true risk of these drugs. This review critically describes the reported cases of statin side effects in several genetic myopathies and suggests some guidelines for conditions that are contra indicated for statin usage (particularly in mitochondrial disorders, metabolic myopathies, myotonic dystrophy type 2). Possible solutions to the dilemma of whether to use statins in hereditary myopathies are discussed (prescribing other cholesterol lowering agents and a carefully monitored treatment initiation of statins).

Successful treatment with reduced oral steroid dosage in an 81-year-old woman with statin-induced anti-HMGCR immune-mediated necrotizing myopathy.

An 81-year-old woman presented with statin-induced anti-HMGCR immune-mediated necrotizing myopathy. Treatment was successful without complications with a reduced oral steroid dosage from the current consensus for all ages and backgrounds. This case suggests the importance of early diagnosis and the possibility of steroid dosage adjustment considering the patient's age, disease severity, and comorbidities.

Six Years Follow-Up of an 11-Year-Old Girl with Anti-HMGCR Myopathy.

Anti-HMGCR myopathy is decribed as an immune-mediated necrotizing myopathy which is characterised by subacute, progressive proximal muscle weakness and elevated creatine kinase (CK) level. In pediatric population, anti-HMGCR myopathy has been reported solely as small case reports, albeit rare. Although treatment consensus has not yet been established, proper treatment with several immunomodulators to include IVIg can show remarkable improvement. We report an 11-year-old-girl diagnosed with anti-HMGCR myopathy with 6 years of follow-up.

Management of immune-mediated necrotizing myopathy.

The immune-mediated necrotizing myopathies (IMNM) are autoimmune myositides clinically characterized by proximal predominant weakness and elevated creatine kinase (CK). They may be associated with autoantibodies (anti-HMGCR, anti-SRP), triggered by statin use (e.g., anti-HMGCR myopathy), associated with cancer, or may be idiopathic. Immunotherapy is required to improve strength and decrease the CK level, but no therapies are currently approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of IMNM. The optimal treatment strategy for IMNM is currently unknown and wide practice variation exists in the management of this condition. However, observational studies and expert opinion suggest that certain therapies may be more effective for the different serological subtypes of IMNM. HMGCR IMNM often responds favorably to intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) even as monotherapy. Signal recognition peptide and seronegative IMNM typically require combination immunotherapy, most often consisting of an oral immunosuppressant, corticosteroids, and IVIG or rituximab. Patients often remain on immunotherapy for years and relapse is common during tapering of immunotherapy. Further studies are needed to guide the optimal management of these patients.

Statin-induced, immune-mediated necrotising myopathy triggered by malignancy successfully treated with immunosuppression.

Statin-induced immune-mediated necrotising myopathy (IMNM) is an inflammatory myopathy that can present as proximal muscle weakness and, in some cases, as dysphagia and respiratory distress. In this report, we present a case of statin-induced IMNM in a 78-year-old male. The patient had significantly high levels of creatinine kinase and myoglobinuria and experienced gradual weakness in the proximal muscles for 1 month after initiating a 20 mg dose of Atorvastatin 10 months before admission. Rapid clinical improvement was observed with the use of high-dose glucocorticoids in conjunction with methotrexate.

Taurine activates the AKT-mTOR axis to restore muscle mass and contractile strength in human 3D in vitro models of steroid myopathy.

Steroid myopathy is a clinically challenging condition exacerbated by prolonged corticosteroid use or adrenal tumors. In this study, we engineered a functional three-dimensional (3D) in vitro skeletal muscle model to investigate steroid myopathy. By subjecting our bioengineered muscle tissues to dexamethasone treatment, we reproduced the molecular and functional aspects of this disease. Dexamethasone caused a substantial reduction in muscle force, myotube diameter and induced fatigue. We observed nuclear translocation of the glucocorticoid receptor (GCR) and activation of the ubiquitin-proteasome system within our model, suggesting their coordinated role in muscle atrophy. We then examined the therapeutic potential of taurine in our 3D model for steroid myopathy. Our findings revealed an upregulation of phosphorylated AKT by taurine, effectively countering the hyperactivation of the ubiquitin-proteasomal pathway. Importantly, we demonstrate that discontinuing corticosteroid treatment was insufficient to restore muscle mass and function. Taurine treatment, when administered concurrently with corticosteroids, notably enhanced contractile strength and protein turnover by upregulating the AKT-mTOR axis. Our model not only identifies a promising therapeutic target, but also suggests combinatorial treatment that may benefit individuals undergoing corticosteroid treatment or those diagnosed with adrenal tumors.

Statin-induced debilitating weakness and myopathy.

A large percentage of the US population is either receiving or should be considered for statin therapy. Whether through primary or secondary prevention for atherosclerotic disease, statins remain one of the mainstay options available to physicians. Myalgias are the most commonly reported side effects, though largely self-limited and subjective in nature. Here, we report a case of drug-related myonecrosis following long-term use of atorvastatin. Prompt recognition of the condition and initiation of treatment is paramount to control the disease's progression. While high-dose steroids are first line, quick escalation to methotrexate, IVIG or rituximab should be considered in refractory cases. This decision is guided by monitoring of serum markers such as CK and transaminases. The goal is quick normalisation of these enzymes, signalling cessation of underlying muscle necrosis. Patients may never regain full function and treatment can last months to years.

SEPN1-related myopathy depends on the oxidoreductase ERO1A and is druggable with the chemical chaperone TUDCA.

Selenoprotein N (SEPN1) is a protein of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) whose inherited defects originate SEPN1-related myopathy (SEPN1-RM). Here, we identify an interaction between SEPN1 and the ER-stress-induced oxidoreductase ERO1A. SEPN1 and ERO1A, both enriched in mitochondria-associated membranes (MAMs), are involved in the redox regulation of proteins. ERO1A depletion in SEPN1 knockout cells restores ER redox, re-equilibrates short-range MAMs, and rescues mitochondrial bioenergetics. ERO1A knockout in a mouse background of SEPN1 loss blunts ER stress and improves multiple MAM functions, including Ca2+ levels and bioenergetics, thus reversing diaphragmatic weakness. The treatment of SEPN1 knockout mice with the ER stress inhibitor tauroursodeoxycholic acid (TUDCA) mirrors the results of ERO1A loss. Importantly, muscle biopsies from patients with SEPN1-RM exhibit ERO1A overexpression, and TUDCA-treated SEPN1-RM patient-derived primary myoblasts show improvement in bioenergetics. These findings point to ERO1A as a biomarker and a viable target for intervention and to TUDCA as a pharmacological treatment for SEPN1-RM.

Treatment of Thyroid Eye Disease-Associated Ophthalmopathy and Myopathy With Intraorbital Injection of 5-Fluorouracil and Triamcinolone Acetonide.

PURPOSE: The authors report a technique of local application of anti-metabolite and corticosteroid mixture in the orbit for treatment of thyroid orbitopathy with moderate-severe inflammation and muscle involvement. METHODS: Patients of one orbital surgeon seen between March 2019 and May 2020 with active thyroid eye disease and restrictive strabismus were considered for local treatment of the myopathic component of the disease. A mixture of 1 ml 5-FU 50 mg/ml, 0.25 ml triamcinolone 40 mg/ml, and 1 ml lidocaine 2% is injected through the skin using a 25-gauge, 1.5-inch needle into the orbit adjacent to the affected extraocular muscle. Six patients were treated in the outpatient setting and 3 patients have been treated with this intervention intraoperatively at the time of orbital decompression. One was treated with the mixture reconstituted with hyaluronic acid (Healon GV) to address postoperative medial rectus fibrosis to the medial wall, this mixture was applied topically in the operative field and not injected. RESULTS: All patients had subjective improvement in the eye movement limitation and 2 patients had a change in motility on exam that was temporally correlated to injections. One patient did not disclose high-dose aspirin intake before injection and experienced a retrobulbar hemorrhage immediately following injection which was successfully treated. No complications were noted as a result of the medication itself. DISCUSSION: The combination of 5-fluorouracil and triamcinolone acetonide for orbital treatment may be a useful adjunct in treating patients with ongoing inflammatory activity, both in the office and in the operating room. The novel combination may optimize ophthalmic outcomes, modifying disease course in some patients.

Standardization of zebrafish drug testing parameters for muscle diseases.

Skeletal muscular diseases predominantly affect skeletal and cardiac muscle, resulting in muscle weakness, impaired respiratory function and decreased lifespan. These harmful outcomes lead to poor health-related quality of life and carry a high healthcare economic burden. The absence of promising treatments and new therapies for muscular disorders requires new methods for candidate drug identification and advancement in animal models. Consequently, the rapid screening of drug compounds in an animal model that mimics features of human muscle disease is warranted. Zebrafish are a versatile model in preclinical studies that support developmental biology and drug discovery programs for novel chemical entities and repurposing of established drugs. Due to several advantages, there is an increasing number of applications of the zebrafish model for high-throughput drug screening for human disorders and developmental studies. Consequently, standardization of key drug screening parameters, such as animal husbandry protocols, drug compound administration and outcome measures, is paramount for the continued advancement of the model and field. Here, we seek to summarize and explore critical drug treatment and drug screening parameters in the zebrafish-based modeling of human muscle diseases. Through improved standardization and harmonization of drug screening parameters and protocols, we aim to promote more effective drug discovery programs.

Riboflavin-responsive lipid-storage myopathy in elderly patients.

There are scarce reports of riboflavin-responsive lipid storage myopathy in elderly patients with onset in their sixties. We describe three elderly patients with riboflavin-responsive lipid-storage myopathy. All three patients (aged 67-71 years on first examination) had subacute onset of neck extensors and proximal limb weakness progressing to inability to rise from a sitting position or to walk. Muscle biopsies showed vacuoles with lipid content, mainly in type 1 fibers. Genetic analysis failed to identify any pathogenic variant in one patient, identified a heterozygous variant of uncertain significance c.812 A > G; p.Tyr271Cys in the ETFDH gene in the second patient, and revealed a heterozygote likely pathogenic variant c.1286-2 A > C in the ETFDH gene predicted to cause abnormal splicing in the third patient. All patients responded to treatment with riboflavin and carnitine, and regained normal strength. This report emphasizes the importance of muscle biopsy in revealing treatable lipid storage myopathy in elderly patients with progressive myopathy of unidentifiable cause.

Are statins making older persons weaker? A discontinuation study of muscular side effects.

Thirteen percent of the Danish population are treated with a statin-half of these are in primary prevention, and most are > 65 years old. Statins have known muscular side effects (i.e., myalgia) correlated to reduced muscle performance. This study examines if years of statin treatment in older people introduce subclinical muscle discomfort and loss of muscle mass and strength. In total, 98 participants (71.1 ± 3.6 years (mean ± SD)), who were in primary prevention treatment for elevated plasma cholesterol with a statin, were included in this study. Statin treatment was discontinued for 2 months and then re-introduced for 2 months. Primary outcomes included muscle performance and myalgia. Secondary outcomes included lean mass and plasma cholesterol. Functional muscle capacity measured as a 6-min walk test increased after discontinuation (from 542 ± 88 to 555 ± 91 m, P < 0.05) and remained increased after re-introduction (557 ± 94 m). Similar significant results were found with a chair stand test (15.7 ± 4.3 to 16.3 ± 4.9 repetitions/30 s) and a quadriceps muscle test. Muscle discomfort during rest did not change significantly with discontinuation (visual analog scale from 0.9 ± 1.7 to 0.6 ± 1.4) but increased (P < 0.05) with the re-introduction (to 1.2 ± 2.0) and muscle discomfort during activity decreased (P < 0.05) with discontinuation (from 2.5 ± 2.6 to 1.9 ± 2.3). After 2 weeks of discontinuation, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol increased from 2.2 ± 0.5 to 3.9 ± 0.8 mM and remained elevated until the re-introduction of statins (P < 0.05). Significant and lasting improvements in muscle performance and myalgia were found at the discontinuation and re-introduction of statins. The results indicate a possible statin-related loss of muscle performance in older persons that needs further examination.

Acute Thyrotoxic Myopathy Combined with Neck Pain: A Case Report.

INTRODUCTION: Acute thyrotoxic myopathy (ATM) is a rare and potentially lethal complication of thyrotoxicosis. The typical clinical symptoms of ATM are characterized by bulbar paralysis. Reports of the successful treatment of ATM are sporadic due to its low incidence. However, no English literature has reported Chinese patients with ATM and neck pain. Here, we report for the first time a Chinese patient with ATM and neck pain who recovered through large doses of systemic glucocorticoids and one intrathyroidal steroid injection. CASE REPORT: A 23-year-old woman visited our hospital with a two-year history of progressive weakness of her bulbar muscles, hoarseness, cough when swallowing, dysphagia, and a one-month history of recurrent painful swelling of the thyroid gland. She was diagnosed with ATM, chronic thyrotoxic myopathy (CTM), and Graves' ophthalmopathy (GO) due to Graves' disease (GD). After she was treated with a combination of low-dose glucocorticoids, antithyroid drugs (ATDs), propranolol, and ultrasound-guided percutaneous intrathyroidal injection of glucocorticoids, her bulbar paralysis, proximal myopathy, and neck pain simultaneously improved without recurrence during follow-up. To our knowledge, this is the first case report of a patient with ATM, CTM, GD, GO and neck pain treated by administering a combination of low-dose glucocorticoids, one intrathyroidal steroid injection and antithyroid agents. CONCLUSIONS: Clinicians should consider ATM and intervene with aggressive glucocorticoid therapy, and this is the key to reversing the progression of ATM when a patient has bulbar paralysis and thyrotoxic symptoms. Our case report references the clinical diagnosis and treatment of such cases.

[Anti-HMGCR immune-mediated necrotizing myopathy: A case report].

The patient was a 55-year-old man who was admitted to hospital with "progressive myalgia and weakness for 4 months, and exacerbated for 1 month". Four months ago, he presented with persistent shoulder girdle myalgia and elevated creatine kinase (CK) at routine physical examination, which fluctuated from 1 271 to 2 963 U/L after discontinuation of statin treatment. Progressive myalgia and weakness worsened seriously to breath-holding and profuse sweating 1 month ago. The patient was post-operative for renal cancer, had previous diabetes mellitus and coronary artery disease medical history, had a stent implanted by percutaneous coronary intervention and was on long-term medication with aspirin, atorvastatin and metoprolol. Neurological examination showed pressure pain in the scapularis and pelvic girdle muscles, and V- grade muscle strength in the proximal extremities. Strongly positive of anti-HMGCR antibody was detected. Muscle magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) T2-weighted image and short time inversion recovery sequences (STIR) showed high signals in the right vastus lateralis and semimembranosus muscles. There was a small amount of myofibrillar degeneration and necrosis, CD4 positive inflammatory cells around the vessels and among myofibrils, MHC-Ⅰ infiltration, and multifocal lamellar deposition of C5b9 in non-necrotic myofibrils of the right quadriceps muscle pathological manifestation. According to the clinical manifestation, imageological change, increased CK, blood specific anti-HMGCR antibody and biopsy pathological immune-mediated evidence, the diagnosis of anti-HMGCR immune-mediated necrotizing myopathy was unequivocal. Methylprednisolone was administrated as 48 mg daily orally, and was reduced to medication discontinuation gradually. The patient's complaint of myalgia and breathlessness completely disappeared after 2 weeks, the weakness relief with no residual clinical symptoms 2 months later. Follow-up to date, there was no myalgia or weakness with slightly increasing CK rechecked. The case was a classical anti-HMGCR-IMNM without swallowing difficulties, joint symptoms, rash, lung symptoms, gastrointestinal symptoms, heart failure and Raynaud's phenomenon. The other clinical characters of the disease included CK as mean levels >10 times of upper limit of normal, active myogenic damage in electromyography, predominant edema and steatosis of gluteus and external rotator groups in T2WI and/or STIR at advanced disease phase except axial muscles. The symptoms may occasionally improve with discontinuation of statins, but glucocorticoids are usually required, and other treatments include a variety of immunosuppressive therapies such as methotrexate, rituximab and intravenous gammaglobulin.

Botulinum Toxin and Percutaneous Needle Electrolysis for the Treatment of Chronic Masticatory Myalgia.

Botulinum toxin type A (BTA) is applied in muscle hyperactivity disorders and injected into affected muscles, producing deep and persistent muscle relaxation. Several multidisciplinary groups investigated the treatment of temporomandibular disorders for several years, and there is currently some data on the beneficial effects of BTA in specific cases of chronic masticatory myalgia. Percutaneous needle electrolysis (PNE), which applies a low-intensity galvanic current to promote tissue regeneration, has been shown to be effective in reducing pain and improving masticatory function. The purpose of this study was to investigate the efficacy and safety of BTA and to assess whether its application in patients with localized masticatory myalgia can significantly reduce pain and improve function compared to a group treated with PNE. Fifty-two patients with long-term refractory masticatory myalgia were randomly assigned to two groups. The BTA group (n = 26) received a bilateral botulinum toxin injection and the PNE group (n = 26) received percutaneous electrolysis. The dose of BTA injected was 100 units distributed among the main primary masticatory muscles, and PNE was administered at 0.5 mA/3 s/3 consecutive times in a single session. Patient assessments were performed prior to treatment and one, two, and three months after treatment. The results revealed good therapeutic response in both groups. In the long term, both BTA and PNE showed high efficacy and safety in reducing pain and improving muscle function for the treatment of chronic masticatory myalgia. This improvement was sustained over a three-month period in both groups. Therefore, the use of BTA and PNE could be considered a valid and safe therapeutic alternative among the available options to treat refractory and localized masticatory myalgia when a better therapeutic response is expected as it demonstrated high efficacy.