APDDD: Animal parasitic diseases and drugs database.

Animal parasitic diseases not only have an economic impact, but also have serious social and public health impacts. Although antiparasitic drugs can treat these diseases, it seems difficult for users to comprehensively utilize the information, due to incomplete and difficult data collection. Thus, there is an urgent need to establish a comprehensive database, that includes parasitic diseases and related drugs. In this paper, we develop a knowledge database dedicated to collecting and analyzing animal parasitic diseases and related drugs, named Animal Parasitic Diseases and Drugs Database (APDDD). The current version of APDDD includes animal parasitic disease data of 8 major parasite classifications that cause common parasitic diseases and 96 subclass samples mined from many literature and authoritative books, as well as 182 antiparasitic drugs. Furthermore, we utilized APDDD data to add a knowledge graph representing the relationships between parasitic diseases, drugs, and the targeted gene of drugs acting on parasites. We hope that APDDD will become a good database for animal parasitic diseases and antiparasitic drugs research and that users can gain a more intuitive understanding of the relationships between parasitic diseases, drugs, and targeted genes through the knowledge graph.

Antiparasitic potential of ethanolic extracts of Carpesii Fructus against Miamiensis avidus in hirame natural embryo cell line and their effects on immune response- and biotransformation-related genes.

Scuticociliatosis, caused by Miamiensis avidus, is a severe parasitic disease affecting marine organisms, particularly Paralichthys olivaceus. The aim of this study was to assess the antiparasitic potential of ethanolic extracts of Carpesii Fructus (EECF), the dried fruit of Carpesium abrotanoides L., which is used in traditional Chinese medicine, in vitro. We found that 50%, 70%, and 100% EECF induced morphological changes in M. avidus, including reduced motility, cell shrinkage, and lysis. Nearly 100% cell lysis was observed in M. avidus after 2 h of treating with 100% EECF. After 24 h, the survival rates of M. avidus treated with 100%, 70%, and 50% EECF were 10%, 20%, and 30%, respectively. Additionally, the mRNA levels of immune response-related (IL-1ß, IL-8, TNF-α, and CD8-α) and biotransformation-related (CYP1A, CYP1B, CYP3A4, and UGT2B19) genes increased with 70% and 100% EECF treatment and decreased with 50% EECF treatment following pretreatment with concanavalin A. The viability of hirame natural embryo (HINAE) cells was reduced by 50%, 70%, and 100% EECF (100 mg/L) and was between 67 and 80%. The IC50 values of 50%, 70%, 90%, and 100% EECF in HINAE cells were 102.3, 42.93, 39.15, and 38.39 mg/L, respectively. These results indicated that 50% EECF was less toxic to HINAE cells than 70% or 100% EECF, while still exhibiting antiparasitic activity against M. avidus. Therefore, we demonstrated the role of EECF as a natural antiparasitic agent against M. avidus. Our findings suggest that Carpesii Fructus has potential use as an antiparasitic agent in the aquaculture industry.

Evaluation of cross-grazing deer with sheep or cattle, as means to reduces anthelmintic usage to control gastrointestinal and pulmonary nematodes in farmed red deer (Cervus elaphus) in New Zealand.

Recent reports indicate that gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN) are contributing to significant losses in deer productivity and that anthelmintic resistance has become an issue of concern for deer farmers in New Zealand. The aim of this study was to evaluate cross-grazing of deer with sheep or cattle as an aid for control of gastrointestinal and pulmonary nematode parasites of farmed red deer (Cervus elaphus) in New Zealand. This was a field study replicated over two years (2012 and 2013) for 16 weeks each year at two locations (Massey University, Palmerston North and Invermay AgResearch Centre, Mosgiel). Each farm replicate included four groups (19-20 deer) at each location: red deer cross-grazing with cattle (Deer/Cattle); red deer cross-grazing with sheep (Deer/Sheep); red deer grazing on their own (DeerOwn); and red deer grazing on their own and treated with anthelmintics every two weeks to suppress worm burdens, as a positive control (DeerSup). The key outcome was the number of anthelmintic treatments (AT) given to deer. The decision to treat individual resident deer in Deer/Cattle, Deer/Sheep and DeerOwn groups was based on "trigger" criteria including faecal egg count (FEC)≥250 eggs/g or Dictyocaulus faecal larval count (FLC)≥100 larvae/g or when growth rate was less than 80 % of the mean of the DeerSup group in the previous two weeks. In addition, to quantify the species of parasites cycling in each group, sets of three "tracer" deer were introduced to graze with each group at the mid-point and again at the end of each 16 week period in both years at both locations. Least squares means (LSM) of the number of AT given per animal for Deer/Sheep (3.4) and DeerOwn (3.3) groups were significantly higher than for the Deer/Cattle (2.7) group (p < 0.001). In tracer animals, the LSM of abomasal Trichostrongylus spp. were significantly fewer in the DeerOwn (17), Deer/Cattle (37) and DeerSup (54) groups than in the Deer/Sheep (952; p < 0.001) group. The LSM of the nematodes in the subfamily Ostertagiinae (=Ostertagia-type) were significantly more in the DeerOwn (1950) than in Deer/Sheep (370; p = 0.003) and DeerSup (238; p < 0.001) groups, but the number in the Deer/Cattle group (689) was not different to DeerOwn (p> 0.05). The LSM of lungworm were fewer in Deer/Sheep (3), Deer/Cattle (4) and DeerSup (3; p < 0.001) groups than in DeerOwn (40) group. The Deer/Cattle and DeerSup groups had significantly higher LSM of liveweight gain over the 16 weeks (p < 0.001) than the other two groups. This study demonstrated that cross-grazing with either sheep or cattle aided control of lungworm and gastrointestinal nematodes in young deer during autumn. However, the advantages varied between the use of sheep or cattle and in the ability to control different species of parasites.

Field study to investigate the effectiveness and safety of a novel orally administered combination drug product containing milbemycin oxime and lotilaner (Credelio® Plus) against natural intestinal nematode infections in dogs presented as veterinary patients in Europe.

BACKGROUND: A randomised, blinded, positive controlled, multicentre, Good Clinical Practice-compliant, pivotal field study was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness and safety of a new combination of lotilaner + milbemycin oxime tablets (Credelio® Plus; Elanco Animal Health) administered orally to client-owned dogs naturally infected with intestinal nematodes. METHODS: Client-owned dogs presenting to veterinary clinics from households in France, Hungary and Germany were screened for intestinal nematodes. Dogs with an initial positive faecal egg count that was subsequently confirmed with a follow-up faecal examination to demonstrate the presence of naturally occurring mixed or mono-infections with Toxocara canis, Toxascaris leonina, Trichuris vulpis or Ancylostoma caninum were enrolled on Day 0 into the study. Households were randomised in an approximately 2:1 ratio to receive either an investigational product (IP; Credelio Plus tablets) or control product (CP; Nexgard Spectra® tablets) as treatment. Dogs were administered the IP (n = 278) or CP (n = 117) once on Day 0 at a dose rate of 0.75-1.56 mg/kg bodyweight milbemycin oxime and 20.0-41.5 mg/kg bodyweight lotilaner (IP) or as recommended (CP). Effectiveness of the IP and CP treatments was based on the post-treatment reduction in geometric mean faecal egg counts on Day 8 (range Day 7-10) after treatment as compared to their pre-treatment nematode faecal egg counts. RESULTS: Geometric mean (GM) faecal egg counts for T. canis, A caninum and T. vulpis were reduced by ≥ 97.2% in the Credelio Plus group and by ≥ 95.3% in the afoxolaner + milbemycin oxime group. There were insufficient data to calculate a percentage reduction in GM faecal egg counts between Day 0 and Day 8 for T. leonina due to low prevalence. Credelio Plus was well tolerated in this field study. Of the 355 total doses administered, 82.3% were accepted free choice in the IP group compared to 80.8% in the CP group. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrated effectiveness (≥ 97.2% reduction), safety and tablet acceptance of a combination of milbemycin oxime and lotilaner (Credelio Plus) administered orally to dogs with natural intestinal infections of T. canis, A. caninum and T. vulpis.

World Association for the Advancement of Veterinary Parasitology (W.A.A.V.P.) guidelines for studies evaluating the efficacy of parasiticides in reducing the risk of vector-borne pathogen transmission in dogs and cats.

These guidelines are intended to provide an in-depth review of current knowledge and assist the planning and implementation of studies for evaluating the efficacy of parasiticides in reducing transmission of vector-borne pathogens (VBPs) to dogs and cats. At present, the prevention of VBP transmission in companion animals is generally achieved through the administration of products that can repel or rapidly kill arthropods, thus preventing or interrupting feeding before transmission occurs. The present guidelines complement existing guidelines, which focus on efficacy assessment of parasiticides for the treatment, prevention and control of flea and tick infestations, but also give guidance for studies focused on other vectors (i.e. mosquitoes and phlebotomine sand flies). The efficacy of parasiticides in reducing VBP transmission can be evaluated through laboratory or field studies. As such, the present guidelines provide recommendations for these studies, representing a tool for researchers, pharmaceutical companies and authorities involved in the research, development and registration of products with claims for reducing VBP transmission in dogs and cats, respecting the overall principles of the 3Rs (replacement, reduction and refinement). Gaps in our current understanding of VBP transmission times are herein highlighted and the need for further basic research on related topics is briefly discussed.

A systematic review of moxidectin as a treatment for parasitic infections in mammalian species.

Moxidectin (MOX) is a macrocyclic lactone approved worldwide for the treatment of both endo- and ecto-parasites in many mammalian species. The aim of this study was to assess the efficacy of MOX as a treatment against parasites in a range of mammalian species. An electronic literature search was performed for publications to the 1st September 2020. A total of 205 papers were retrieved and screened against all required criteria; hence, 35 were papers were reviewed in this study. The level of evidence and methodological quality was analysed, where a total of 13 publications were categorised as a 'randomised control trial', seven were categorised as a 'non-randomised control trial' and 15 as an 'experimental control trial'. The overall methodological quality of the publications was considered low, low to moderate, moderate, moderate to high and high in ten, four, twelve, five and a further four, respectively. We assessed the treatment and possible toxicity of MOX in 13 mammalian species, six investigations reported adverse effects to MOX in a small percentage of individuals. The authors reported observed reactions that were typically mild symptoms that did not require additional therapies, and/or resolved themselves. Further studies are needed to assess the efficacy of MOX treatment in a larger number of species, particularly in wildlife.

Know your enemy - transcriptome of myxozoan Tetracapsuloides bryosalmonae reveals potential drug targets against proliferative kidney disease in salmonids.

The myxozoan Tetracapsuloides bryosalmonae is a widely spread endoparasite that causes proliferative kidney disease (PKD) in salmonid fish. We developed an in silico pipeline to separate transcripts of T. bryosalmonae from the kidney tissue of its natural vertebrate host, brown trout (Salmo trutta). After stringent filtering, we constructed a partial transcriptome assembly T. bryosalmonae, comprising 3427 transcripts. Based on homology-restricted searches of the assembled parasite transcriptome and Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) proteome, we identified four protein targets (Endoglycoceramidase, Legumain-like protease, Carbonic anhydrase 2, Pancreatic lipase-related protein 2) for the development of anti-parasitic drugs against T. bryosalmonae. Earlier work of these proteins on parasitic protists and helminths suggests that the identified anti-parasitic drug targets represent promising chemotherapeutic candidates also against T. bryosalmonae, and strengthen the view that the known inhibitors can be effective in evolutionarily distant organisms. In addition, we identified differentially expressed T. bryosalmonae genes between moderately and severely infected fish, indicating an increased abundance of T. bryosalmonae sporogonic stages in fish with low parasite load. In conclusion, this study paves the way for future genomic research in T. bryosalmonae and represents an important step towards the development of effective drugs against PKD.

The pharmacokinetics and antiparasitic activity of ivermectin in Hutsul and Toric horses.

The aim of this study was to compare the pharmacokinetics of ivermectin and its antiparasitic activity in two horse breeds. Eight Hutsul and 14 Toric horses were administered ivermectin orally at a dose of 0.2 mg/kg body weight. Blood samples were collected for 96 hr, and faecal samples were collected one day before and on days 14 and 21 after drug administration. Ivermectin concentrations in plasma samples were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography. Ivermectin concentration was significantly higher in Toric than in Hutsul horses 90 min after ivermectin administration and was maintained at higher level for up to 96 hr. The area under the concentration versus the time curve from 0 to the last sampling point (AUC0→t ) and the maximum plasma concentration (Cmax ) were significantly higher in Toric than in Hutsul horses (1792.09 ± 246.22 µg × hr/L vs. 716.99 ± 255.81 µg × hr/L and 62.72 ± 17.97 ng/ml vs. 35.34 ± 13.61 ng/ml, respectively). No parasitic eggs were found in the faecal samples collected from both groups of horses on days 14 and 21 after drug administration. The obtained results indicate that although the pharmacokinetics of ivermectin may differ significantly between horse breeds, these differences do not affect the effectiveness of therapy.

Antiparasitics in Animal Health: Quo Vadis?

Antiparasitics acting on endo- or ectoparasites represent the second largest segment of the global animal health market, accounting for 23% of market share. However, relatively few novel antiparasitic agents have been introduced into the market during recent decades. One exception, and a groundbreaking 21st century success story, are the isoxazolines, whose full potential has not yet been entirely explored. Unfortunately, resistance issues are present across most parasitic diseases, which generates a clear market need for novel resistance-breaking antiparasitics with new modes/mechanisms of action. Recent advances in science and technologies strongly suggest that the time is right to invest in new modalities such as parasitic vaccines or in environmentally friendly interventions.

Need for a sustainable use of medicinal products: environmental impacts of ivermectin.

It is worldwide recognized that the use of pharmaceuticals for human and veterinary purposes could lead to unsustainable effects on the environment. A strategy to reduce the impact of pharmaceuticals on the environment has been recently established at European level, where guidelines to evaluate the impacts of veterinary drugs used to treat animal diseases are in place. The aim of this article is to focus on the worldwide used antiparasitic drug ivermectin (IVM) and its potential impact on the environment. A specific section is related to the IVM resistance that the massive use of this drug could generate enhancing the risk scenarios also for human health. The application of stringent measures for the veterinary use of this substance, in line with the recommendations provided by International frameworks such as One Health and EcoHealth, is recommended.

Increasing importance of anthelmintic resistance in European livestock: creation and meta-analysis of an open database.

Helminth infections are ubiquitous in grazing ruminant production systems, and are responsible for significant costs and production losses. Anthelmintic Resistance (AR) in parasites is now widespread throughout Europe, although there are still gaps in our knowledge in some regions and countries. AR is a major threat to the sustainability of modern ruminant livestock production, resulting in reduced productivity, compromised animal health and welfare, and increased greenhouse gas emissions through increased parasitism and farm inputs. A better understanding of the extent of AR in Europe is needed to develop and advocate more sustainable parasite control approaches. A database of European published and unpublished AR research on gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN) and liver fluke (Fasciola hepatica) was collated by members of the European COST Action "COMBAR" (Combatting Anthelmintic Resistance in Ruminants), and combined with data from a previous systematic review of AR in GIN. A total of 197 publications on AR in GIN were available for analysis, representing 535 studies in 22 countries and spanning the period 1980-2020. Reports of AR were present throughout the European continent and some reports indicated high within-country prevalence. Heuristic sample size-weighted estimates of European AR prevalence over the whole study period, stratified by anthelmintic class, varied between 0 and 48%. Estimated regional (country) prevalence was highly heterogeneous, ranging between 0% and 100% depending on livestock sector and anthelmintic class, and generally increased with increasing research effort in a country. In the few countries with adequate longitudinal data, there was a tendency towards increasing AR over time for all anthelmintic classes in GIN: aggregated results in sheep and goats since 2010 reveal an average prevalence of resistance to benzimidazoles (BZ) of 86%, macrocyclic lactones except moxidectin (ML) 52%, levamisole (LEV) 48%, and moxidectin (MOX) 21%. All major GIN genera survived treatment in various studies. In cattle, prevalence of AR varied between anthelmintic classes from 0-100% (BZ and ML), 0-17% (LEV) and 0-73% (MOX), and both Cooperia and Ostertagia survived treatment. Suspected AR in F. hepatica was reported in 21 studies spanning 6 countries. For GIN and particularly F. hepatica, there was a bias towards preferential sampling of individual farms with suspected AR, and research effort was biased towards Western Europe and particularly the United Kingdom. Ongoing capture of future results in the live database, efforts to avoid bias in farm recruitment, more accurate tests for AR, and stronger appreciation of the importance of AR among the agricultural industry and policy makers, will support more sophisticated analyses of factors contributing to AR and effective strategies to slow its spread.

TITLE: Importance croissante de la résistance aux anthelminthiques chez les ruminants européens : création et méta-analyse d'une base de données ouverte. ABSTRACT: Les helminthes sont omniprésents dans les systèmes de production de ruminants au pâturage et sont responsables de coûts et de pertes de production importants. La résistance aux anthelminthiques (RA) des parasites est maintenant répandue dans toute l'Europe, bien qu'il existe encore des lacunes dans nos connaissances dans certaines régions et certains pays. La RA est une menace majeure pour la pérennité de la production moderne de ruminants, en diminuant la productivité, en compromettant la santé et le bien-être des animaux, et en augmentant les émissions de gaz à effet de serre au travers d'une augmentation du parasitisme et des intrants agricoles. Une meilleure compréhension de l'étendue de la RA en Europe est nécessaire pour développer et préconiser des approches de lutte antiparasitaire plus durables. Une base de données intégrant des informations publiées et non publiées en Europe concernant la RA des nématodes gastro-intestinaux (NGI) et de la douve du foie (Fasciola hepatica) a été compilée par les membres de l'action européenne COST « COMBAR ¼ (« Combattre la résistance aux anthelminthiques chez les ruminants ¼) et combinée avec les données d'une précédente étude systématique concernant la RA des NGI. Au total, 197 publications sur la RA des NGI étaient disponibles pour analyse, représentant 535 études dans 22 pays et couvrant la période 1980­2020. Des signalements de RA étaient présents sur tout le continent européen et certains rapports indiquaient une forte prévalence nationale. Les estimations heuristiques pondérées par la taille de l'échantillon de la prévalence de la RA en Europe sur toute la période d'étude, stratifiées par classe d'anthelminthiques, variaient de 0 à 48 %. La prévalence régionale (nationale) estimée était très hétérogène, variant entre 0 % et 100 % selon le secteur de l'élevage et la classe d'anthelminthique, et augmentait généralement avec les efforts de recherche dans le pays. Dans les quelques pays disposant de données longitudinales adéquates, il y avait une tendance à l'augmentation de la RA au fil du temps pour toutes les classes d'anthelminthiques des NGI : les résultats agrégés chez les ovins et caprins depuis 2010 révèlent une prévalence moyenne de résistance aux benzimidazoles (BZ) de 86 %, aux lactones macrocycliques sauf moxidectine (ML) de 52 %, au lévamisole (LEV) de 48 % et à la moxidectine (MOX) de 21 %. Tous les genres principaux de NGI ont survécu au traitement dans diverses études. Chez les bovins, la prévalence de la RA variait selon les classes d'anthelminthiques de 0 à 100 % (BZ et ML), 0 à 17 % (LEV) et 0 à 73 % (MOX), et Cooperia et Ostertagia ont survécu aux traitements. Une RA suspectée chez F. hepatica a été signalée dans 21 études portant sur 6 pays. Pour les NGI, et encore plus pour F. hepatica, il y avait un biais d'échantillonnage en faveur des exploitations individuelles suspectées de RA, et l'effort de recherche était biaisé vers l'Europe occidentale et en particulier le Royaume-Uni. La capture continue des résultats futurs dans la base de données, en direct, les efforts pour éviter les biais dans le recrutement des exploitations, des tests plus précis pour la RA et une meilleure appréciation de l'importance de la RA parmi l'industrie agricole et les décideurs politiques, soutiendront des analyses plus sophistiquées des facteurs contribuant à la RA, et des stratégies efficaces pour ralentir sa propagation.

Are pet parasite products harming the environment more than we think?

Rosemary Perkins argues that the environmental impact of veterinary parasiticide products is cause for concern and that more research needs to be done to fully appreciate their environmental effects.

Importation of cats and risk of parasite spread: a Caribbean perspective and case study from St Kitts.

BACKGROUND: In more recent years, international travel with cats has increased. The distribution of cat parasites can change with this movement. Already, subtropical and tropical parasites have been reported by veterinarians in areas where they are not naturally present. Understanding the prevalence of tropical and subtropical parasites in Caribbean islands and the risk of importation to temperate areas could enable improved prevention recommendations and border control import requirements. METHODS: We present a study focused on cat owning students enrolled in a Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (DVM) programme on St Kitts. Owners were interviewed about their cats and their use of parasiticides. Cats were examined for Trichuris felis and Platynosomum fastosum using sugar flotation, Lynxacarus radovskyi using an adhesive tape test, and Dirofilaria immitis using commercial antigen and antibody tests. RESULTS: Data on 115 cats owned by 87 DVM students were collected and 90 cats, all expected to travel to the USA, were examined. Most of the cats were adults and born in St Kitts. Prevalence was reported as 6.8% (95% confidence interval (CI): 2.2-15.1%) for T. felis, 16.2% (95% CI: 8.7-26.6%) for P. fastosum and 6.8% (95% CI: 2.5-14.3%) for L. radovskyi. All D. immitis tests were negative. DVM students reported a high level of deworming (83.3% of the cats), but the number of cats treated per recommendations were low (56.1% for endoparasites and 70.8% for ectoparasites). Also, there was a lack of clarity regarding the purpose of the treatments used and treatments did not appear to be targeted for the parasites present. CONCLUSION: Our results indicate a low prevalence of the parasites of interest in the DVM student cat population compared to other prevalence studies from the Caribbean. However, a degree of non-compliance with parasiticide uses and the high number of cats traveling to the USA indicate a medium risk of importation of tropical and subtropical cat parasites to temperate areas. We recommend stronger health inspections and health screening requirements at the borders including the development of specific parasiticide protocols for cat importation.

Common bacterial, viral, and parasitic diseases in pigeons (Columba livia): A review of diagnostic and treatment strategies.

Pigeons (Columba livia) have been associated with humans for a long time now. They are raised for sport (pigeon race), exhibition (display of fancy breeds), food, and research. Most of the pigeons kept are Racing Homers, trained to compete in the pigeon race. Other breeds, such as Rollers, Nose Divers, Doneks are bred for their aerial abilities. Incorporation of a good preventive medicine program is one of the most critical factors in averting infectious diseases in pigeon flocks. This review summarizes the common bacterial, viral, and parasitic infections in pigeons. The different clinical signs, symptoms, diagnostic strategies, prevention, and treatments were described in this review. Current researches, molecular diagnostic assays, and treatment strategies such as vaccines and drug candidates were included. The information found in this review can provide insights for veterinarians and researchers studying pigeons to develop effective and efficient immunoprophylactic and diagnostic tools for pigeon diagnosis and therapeutics.

The oligomeric assembly of galectin-11 is critical for anti-parasitic activity in sheep (Ovis aries).

Galectins are a family of glycan-binding molecules with a characteristic affinity for ß-D-glycosides that mediate a variety of important cellular functions, including immune and inflammatory responses. Galectin-11 (LGALS-11) has been recently identified as a mediator induced specifically in animals against gastrointestinal nematodes and can interfere with parasite growth and development. Here, we report that at least two natural genetic variants of LGALS-11 exist in sheep, and demonstrate fundamental differences in anti-parasitic activity, correlated with their ability to dimerise. This study improves our understanding of the role of galectins in the host immune and inflammatory responses against parasitic nematodes and provides a basis for genetic studies toward selective breeding of animals for resistance to parasites.

TroCCAP recommendations for the diagnosis, prevention and treatment of parasitic infections in dogs and cats in the tropics.

The Tropical Council for Companion Animal Parasites Ltd. (TroCCAP) is a not-for-profit organisation whose mission is to independently inform, guide and make best-practice recommendations for the diagnosis, treatment and control of companion animal parasites in the tropics and sub-tropics, with the aim of protecting animal and human health. In line with this primary mission, TroCCAP recently developed guidelines for the diagnosis, treatment and control of feline and canine parasites in the tropics. The development of these guidelines required unique and complex considerations to be addressed, often inapplicable to developed nations. Much of the tropics encompass middle-to-low income countries in which poor standards of environmental hygiene and large populations of stray dogs and cats coexist. In these regions, a range of parasites pose a high risk to companion animals, which ultimately may place their owners at risk of acquiring parasitic zoonoses. These considerations led to the development of unique recommendations with regard, for example, to deworming and endoparasite testing intervals for the control of both global and 'region-specific' parasites in the tropics. Moreover, the 'off-' or 'extra'-label use of drugs for the treatment and control of parasitic infections is common practice in many tropical countries and many generic products lack manufacturers' information on efficacy, safety, and quality control. Recommendations and advice concerning the use of such drugs and protocols are also addressed in these guidelines. The formation of these guidelines is an important first step towards improving the education of veterinarians specifically regarding best-practice for the diagnosis, treatment and control of canine and feline parasites in the tropics.

Capillaria boehmi (syn. Eucoleus boehmi): Challenging treatment of a rarely diagnosed nasal nematode in dogs and high prevalence in Swiss foxes.

Despite morphological differences of eggs and adults, Capillaria boehmi infections have been occasionally misdiagnosed as C. aerophila infections in the past. Capillaria boehmi is found in the nasal and paranasal sinuses of wild canids and dogs, which may suffer from nasal discharge, sneezing, epistaxis and, importantly, their scent can be impaired. In this study we present three challenging cases of nasal capillariosis in dogs, report and review the variable success of anthelmintic treatments and investigate C. boehmi prevalence in Swiss red foxes, considered as potential wild life reservoir. Out of two females and one male dog (all scent hounds, aged 3-9 years and weighing 19-31 kg), two dogs were previously coproscopically misdiagnosed with Trichuris infections. Two dogs showed clinical signs such as sneezing, coughing and impaired scent. From one dog adult living C. boehmi were obtained by nasal lavage. The identity of worms and eggs of all three dogs were genetically confirmed (18S rRNA, 100 % identity in 578 base pairs). Dogs 1-3 were followed-up for overall 54, 8, and 67 months, respectively. All dogs repeatedly excreted C. boehmi eggs in faecal samples despite treatments with the following compounds, in various dosage and retreatment protocols: fenbendazole, milbemycin oxime (orally), moxidectin/imidacloprid/ (spot-on) and levamisole (intramuscularly). The different anthelmintic compounds showed variable success regarding their effect on clinical outcome and on stopping egg excretion. Reinfections due to a contaminated environment could not be fully excluded. In winter 2016 and 2017, 218 foxes from the canton of Zurich, Switzerland, were examined. Tissues of nasal and paranasal sinuses were investigated for adult Capillaria specimens and eggs. We describe for the first time C. boehmi infections in Switzerland, observing a high prevalence (190/218, 87.2 %). Overall, 107 of 126 adults (84.9 %, 95 % Confidence Interval, CI: 77.5-90.7 %) and 83 of 92 youngsters (90.2 %, CI: 82.2-95.4 %) were infected. The presence of C. boehmi did not correlate with age (P = 0.209), but correlated significantly with sex: male foxes (102 of 107, 95.3 %, CI: 89.4-98.5 %) were significantly (P = 0.001) more often infected than females (88 of 111, 79.3 %, CI: 70.5-86.4 %). Worm burden ranged from 1 to 72 adult specimens (geometric mean: 5.7). In conclusion, C. boehmi infections can be mis- and/or underdiagnosed in dogs. Appropriate anthelmintic treatments, preventing coprophagia and egg contamination of the surroundings and performing coproscopic controls after treatments are fundamental aspects. Potentially, nasal washing may represent an auxiliary alternative. However, the successful elimination of C. boehmi infections in dogs remains challenging.