[Eserine, in Crooked House and Curtain].

Eserine, well-known as physostigmine, is classified as an alkaloid. It is a cholinesterase inhibitor and appears in Agatha Christie's novel entitled, Crooked House and Curtain: Poirot's Last Case. In clinical medicine, eserine was used as an ophthalmic treatment for glaucoma and considered as a treatment for myasthenia gravis, Alzheimer's disease, and hereditary cerebellar ataxias. Currently, it is used as a treatment for anticholinergic poisoning.

Participation of Modulating Rhythms of the Decasecond Range in Intersystem Correlation Interactions in Early Rat Ontogeny.

On newborn non-narcotized 1-day-old (P1) and 16-day-old (P16) rats, a detailed analysis of intersystem somatovisceral interactions (ISI) mediated by decasecond (D1, 5-50 sec) range modulating rhythms was performed. Correlation interactions of the main body systems - cardiovascular, respiratory and somatomotor systems in norm and under conditions of changes in the level of cholinergic regulation were studied. Spectral correlation analysis was used to determine the participation of D1 range modulating rhythms in ISI. It was found that at P1, D1 range rhythms do not play a significant role in integrative processes. In P16 the activation of cholinergic structures, caused by the introduction of the acetylcholinesterase inhibitor physostigmine (eserine) leads to significant disturbances in the degree of correlation in the D1 range. Blockade of muscarinic and nicotinic cholinoreceptors does not alter the degree of correlation of systemic pairs in the slow-wave region (D1-low, 8-50 sec) of the D1 range. Under the influence on the cholinoreactive structures, the most significant changes in the degree of correlation in the ISI affect the somatorespiratory systemic pair. The results obtained indicate that the representation of the slow-wave components of D1 range modulating rhythms involved in the ISI increase during the first weeks of postnatal ontogeny. Changes in the level of cholinergic activation do not directly influence on ISI mediated by D1-low sub-band rhythms.

Dose-Dependent Heart Rhythm Disturbance Occurring in Response to the Activation of Choline-Reactive Structures in Early Rat Ontogeny.

The effect of dose-dependent activation of cholinoreactive structures on the severity of sinus bradycardia occurring in some intact newborn rats during the first weeks after birth was analyzed in non-narcotized one-day-old (P1) and 16-day-old (P16) rats. The parameters of low-amplitude bradycardic oscillations of heart rhythm in norm and after administration of the acetylcholinesterase inhibitor physostigmine (eserine) in different doses (1/100, 1/10, and 3/4LD50) to rats were studied. The maximum increase in the power of low-amplitude brady-cardic oscillations was achieved during moderate activation of cholinoreactive structures after injection of eserine in a dose of 1/10LD50. Further increase in acetylcholine level led to disappearance of the sinus rhythm and development of pathological bradycardia. The data obtained indicate the immaturity of the mechanisms of heart rhythm regulation in rats immediately after birth. During activation of cholinoreactive structures, the severity of bradycardia oscillations increases exponentially at P1 and has an inverse exponential character at P16, which indicates a high risk of cardiac rhythmogenesis disorders and dysrhythmia development in newborn rats under conditions of excessive enhancement of cholinergic activation.

Ventral Tegmental Area M5 Muscarinic Receptors Mediate Effort-Choice Responding and Nucleus Accumbens Dopamine in a Sex-Specific Manner .

Optimization of effort-related choices is impaired in depressive disorders. Acetylcholine (ACh) and dopamine (DA) are linked to depressive disorders, and modulation of ACh tone in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) affects mood-related behavioral responses in rats. However, it is unknown if VTA ACh mediates effort-choice behaviors. Using a task of effort-choice, rats can choose to lever press on a fixed-ratio 5 (FR5) schedule for a more-preferred food or consume freely available, less-preferred food. VTA administration of physostigmine (1 µg and 2 µg/side), a cholinesterase inhibitor, reduced FR5 responding for the more-preferred food while leaving consumption of the less-preferred food intact. VTA infusion of the M5 muscarinic receptor negative allosteric modulator VU6000181 (3 µM, 10 µM, 30 µM/side) did not affect lever pressing or chow consumption. However, VU6000181 (30 µM/side) coadministration with physostigmine (2 µg/side) attenuated physostigmine-induced decrease in lever pressing in female and male rats and significantly elevated lever pressing above vehicle baseline levels in male rats. In in vivo voltammetry experiments, VTA infusion of combined physostigmine and VU6000181 did not significantly alter evoked phasic DA release in the nucleus accumbens core (NAc) in female rats. In male rats, combined VTA infusion of physostigmine and VU6000181 increased phasic evoked DA release in the NAc compared with vehicle, physostigmine, or VU6000181 infusion alone. These data indicate a critical role and potential sex differences of VTA M5 receptors in mediating VTA cholinergic effects on effort choice behavior and regulation of DA release. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Effort-choice impairments are observed in depressive disorders, which are often treatment resistant to currently available thymoleptics. The role of ventral tegmental area (VTA) acetylcholine muscarinic M5 receptors, in a preclinical model of effort-choice behavior, is examined. Using the selective negative allosteric modulator of the M5 receptor VU6000181, we show the role of VTA M5 receptors on effort-choice and regulation of dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens core. This study supports M5 receptors as therapeutic targets for depression.

Pretreatment of rhesus monkeys with transdermal patches containing physostigmine and procyclidine: implications of the delivery system for the potential application against VX nerve agent intoxication in humans.

Physostigmine (Phs) is a reversible inhibitor of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) that penetrates the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and could be used to protect the central nervous system (CNS) against the effects of nerve agents. For prophylactic effectiveness, long, steady, and adequate inhibition of AChE activity by Phs is needed to broadly protect against the CNS effects of nerve agents. Here, we evaluated the efficacy of transdermal patches containing Phs and procyclidine (PC) as prophylactic agents. Patches (25 cm2) containing 4.4 mg Phs and 17.8 mg PC had a protective ratio of approximately 78.6-fold in rhesus monkeys challenged with VX nerve agent and given an antidote. Physiologically based pharmacokinetic model in conjunction with an indirect pharmacodynamic (PBPK/PD) was developed for Phs and scaled to rhesus monkeys. The model was able to reproduce the concentration profile and inhibitory effect on AChE of Phs in monkeys, as evidenced by correlation coefficients of 0.994 and 0.992 for 25 cm2 and 49 cm2 patches, respectively (i.e., kinetic data), and 0.989 and 0.968 for 25 cm2 and 49 cm2 patches, respectively (i.e., dynamic data). By extending the monkey PBPK/ PD model to humans, the effective human dose was predicted to be five applications of a 25 cm2 patch (i.e., 22 mg Phs), and two applications of a 49 cm2 patch (i.e., 17.4 mg Phs). Therefore, given that patch application of Phs in rhesus monkeys has a prolonged effect (namely, AChE inhibition of 19.6% for the 25 cm2 patch and 23.0% for the 49 cm2 patch) for up to 216 h, patch formulation of Phs may provide similar protection against nerve agent intoxication in humans.

Differential pharmacological and sex-specific effects of antimuscarinic agents at the hypoglossal motor nucleus in vivo in rats.

Successful cholinergic-noradrenergic pharmacotherapy for obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is thought to be due to effects at the hypoglossal motor nucleus (HMN). Clinical efficacy varies with muscarinic-receptor (MR) subtype affinities. We hypothesized that oxybutynin (cholinergic agent in successful OSA pharmacotherapy) is an effective MR antagonist at the HMN and characterized its efficacy with other antagonists. We recorded tongue muscle activity of isoflurane anesthetized rats (121 males and 60 females, 7-13 per group across 13 protocols) in response to HMN microperfusion with MR antagonists with and without: (i) eserine-induced increased endogenous acetylcholine at the HMN and (ii) muscarine. Eserine-induced increased acetylcholine decreased tongue motor activity (p < 0.001) with lesser cholinergic suppression in females versus males (p = 0.017). Motor suppression was significantly attenuated by the MR antagonists atropine, oxybutynin, and omadacycline (MR2 antagonist), each p < 0.001, with similar residual activity between agents (p ≥ 0.089) suggesting similar efficacy at the HMN. Sex differences remained with atropine and oxybutynin (p < 0.001 to 0.05) but not omadacycline (p = 0.722). Muscarine at the HMN also decreased motor activity (p < 0.001) but this was not sex-specific (p = 0.849). These findings have translational relevance to antimuscarinic agents in OSA pharmacotherapy and understanding potential sex differences in HMN suppression with increased endogenous acetylcholine related to sparing nicotinic excitation.

Ovariectomy reduces cholinergic modulation of excitatory synaptic transmission in the rat entorhinal cortex.

Estrogens are thought to contribute to cognitive function in part by promoting the function of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons that project to the hippocampus and cortical regions including the entorhinal cortex. Reductions in estrogens may alter cognition by reducing the function of cholinergic inputs to both the hippocampus and entorhinal cortex. In the present study, we assessed the effects of ovariectomy on proteins associated with cholinergic synapses in the entorhinal cortex. Ovariectomy was conducted at PD63, and tissue was obtained on PD84 to 89 to quantify changes in the degradative enzyme acetylcholinesterase, the vesicular acetylcholine transporter, and muscarinic M1 receptor protein. Although the vesicular acetylcholine transporter was unaffected, ovariectomy reduced both acetylcholinesterase and M1 receptor protein, and these reductions were prevented by chronic replacement of 17ß-estradiol following ovariectomy. We also assessed the effects of ovariectomy on the cholinergic modulation of excitatory transmission, by comparing the effects of the acetylcholinesterase inhibitor eserine on evoked excitatory synaptic field potentials in brain slices obtained from intact rats, and from ovariectomized rats with or without 17ß-estradiol replacement. Eserine is known to prolong the effects of endogenously released acetylcholine, resulting in an M1-like mediated reduction of glutamate release at excitatory synapses. The reduction in excitatory synaptic potentials in layer II of the entorhinal cortex induced by 15-min application of 10 µM eserine was greatly reduced in slices from ovariectomized rats as compared to intact rats and ovariectomized rats with replacement of 17ß-estradiol. The reduced modulatory effect of eserine is consistent with the observed changes in cholinergic proteins, and suggests that reductions in 17ß-estradiol following ovariectomy lead to impaired cholinergic function within the entorhinal cortex.

Normalization of impaired emotion inhibition in bipolar disorder mediated by cholinergic neurotransmission in the cingulate cortex.

The muscarinic-cholinergic system is involved in the pathophysiology of bipolar disorder (BD), and contributes to attention and the top-down and bottom-up cognitive and affective mechanisms of emotional processing, functionally altered in BD. Emotion processing can be assessed by the ability to inhibit a response when the content of the image is emotional. Impaired regulatory capacity of cholinergic neurotransmission conferred by reduced M2-autoreceptor availability is hypothesized to play a role in elevated salience of negative emotional distractors in euthymic BD relative to individuals with no history of mood instability. Thirty-three euthymic BD type-I (DSM-V-TR) and 50 psychiatrically-healthy controls underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and an emotion-inhibition paradigm before and after intravenous cholinergic challenge using the acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, physostigmine (1 mg), or placebo. Mood, accuracy, and reaction time on either recognizing or inhibiting a response associated with an image involving emotion and regional functional activation were examined for effects of cholinergic challenge physostigmine relative to placebo, prioritizing any interaction with the diagnostic group. Analyses revealed that (1) at baseline, impaired behavioral performance was associated with lower activation in the anterior cingulate cortex in BD relative to controls during emotion processing; (2) physostigmine (vs. placebo) affected behavioral performance during the inhibition of negative emotions, without altering mood, and increased activation in the posterior cingulate cortex in BD (vs. controls); (3) In BD, lower accuracy observed during emotion inhibition of negative emotions was remediated by physostigmine and was associated with cingulate cortex overactivation. Our findings implicate abnormal regulation of cholinergic neurotransmission in the cingulate cortices in BD, which may mediate exaggerated emotional salience processing, a core feature of BD.

Effects of Increased Central Cholinergic Activity on the Metabolic Challenge Induced by Submaximal Exercise in Rats: Adrenomedullary Secretion Influences.

AIM: The aim of this study was to assess the influence of adrenomedullary secretion on the plasma glucose, lactate, and free fatty acids (FFAs) during running exercise in rats submitted to intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) injection of physostigmine (PHY). PHY i.c.v. was used to activate the central cholinergic system. METHODS: Wistar rats were divided into sham-saline (sham-SAL), sham-PHY, adrenal medullectomy-SAL, and ADM-PHY groups. The plasma concentrations of glucose, lactate, and FFAs were determined immediately before and after i.c.v. injection of 20 µL of SAL or PHY at rest and during running exercise on a treadmill. RESULTS: The i.c.v. injection of PHY at rest increased plasma glucose in the sham group, but not in the ADM group. An increase in plasma glucose, lactate, and FFAs mobilization from adipose tissue was observed during physical exercise in the sham-SAL group; however, the increase in plasma glucose was greater with i.c.v. PHY. Moreover, the hyperglycemia induced by exercise and PHY in the ADM group were blunted by ADM, whereas FFA mobilization was unaffected. CONCLUSION: These results indicate that there is a dual metabolic control by which activation of the central cholinergic pathway increases plasma glucose but not FFA during rest and exercise, and that this hyperglycemic response is dependent on adrenomedullary secretion.

A novel in vitro assay model developed to measure both extracellular and intracellular acetylcholine levels for screening cholinergic agents.

BACKGROUND: Cholinergic neurons utilize choline (Ch) to synthetize acetylcholine (ACh) and contain a high-affinity Ch transporter, Ch acetyltransferase (ChAT), ACh receptors, and acetylcholinesterase (AChE). As the depletion or malfunction of each component of the cholinergic system has been reported in patients with dementia, many studies have sought to evaluate whether treatment candidates affect each of the cholinergic components. The associated changes in the cholinergic components may be reflected by intra- or extra-cellular ACh levels, with an increase in extracellular ACh levels occurring following AChE inhibition. We hypothesized that increases in intracellular ACh levels can be more sensitively detected than those in extracellular ACh levels, thereby capturing subtle effects in the cholinergic components other than AChE. The objective of this study was to test this hypothesis. METHODS: We developed an in vitro model to measure both extracellular and intracellular ACh levels using the human cholinergic neuroblastoma cell line, LA-N-2, which have been reported to express Ch transporter, ChAT, muscarinic ACh receptor (mAChR), and AChE. With this model, we evaluated several drug compounds and food constituents reported to improve cholinergic function through various mechanisms. In addition, we conducted western blotting to identify the subtype of mAChR that is expressed on the cell line. RESULTS: Our cell-based assay system was capable of detecting increases in extracellular ACh levels induced by an AChE inhibitor at relatively high doses, as well as increases in intracellular ACh levels following the administration of lower AChE-inhibitor doses and an mAChR agonist. Moreover, increases in intracellular ACh levels were observed even after treatment with food constituents that have different mechanisms of action, such as Ch provision and ChAT activation. In addition, we revealed that LA-N-2 cells expressed mAChR M2. CONCLUSION: The findings support our hypothesis and indicate that the developed assay model can broadly screen compounds from drugs to food ingredients, with varying strengths and mechanisms of action, to develop treatments for ACh-relevant phenomena, including dementia and aging-related cognitive decline.

Pharmacological support to anti-arthritic prospective of physostigmine: a new approach.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a slowly progressing inflammatory autoimmune disease. Several features are involved in the RA pathogenesis in addition to environmental and genetic factors. Previously it has been reported that acetyl cholinesterase (AChE) activity is enhanced in old age and may contribute in the progression of RA. The current experimental work was projected to assess the activity of physostigmine (a cholinesterase inhibitor) for treatment of RA. In vitro and in vivo approaches were used for such evaluation. However, enzyme linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) was performed to determine the concentrations of Prostaglandins E2 (PGE2) and tumor necrosis factor-α in arthritic rats after treatment with physostigmine. Moreover, anti-oxidant assays were employed to calculate the level of super oxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase peroxidase (CAT) in tissue of treated animals. The results claimed the dose dependent protective and stabilizing effect of physostigmine on denaturation of albumin (egg and bovine serum) protein and human red blood cell membrane, respectively, through in vitro studies. Furthermore, the physostigmine (10 and 20 mg/kg) significantly (p < 0.001) reduced the swelling of paw after induction of arthritis with formaldehyde or complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA) as compared to arthritic control animals. Moreover, significant (p < 0.001) reduction in the levels of inflammatory markers (PGE2 and TNF-α) at doses of 10 and 20 mg/kg of physostigmine has been observed in ELISA test. Likewise, there was a prominent rise in levels of SOD and CAT in animals treated with physostigmine. These findings pharmacologically conclude the anti-arthritic effect of physostigmine.

Multiple cholinesterase inhibitors have antidepressant-like properties in the mouse forced swim test.

There is high clinical interest in improving the pharmacological treatment of individuals with Major Depressive Disorder (MDD). This neuropsychiatric disorder continues to cause significant morbidity and mortality worldwide, where existing pharmaceutical treatments such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors often have limited efficacy. In a recent publication, we demonstrated an antidepressant-like role for the acetylcholinesterase inhibitor (AChEI) donepezil in the C57BL/6J mouse forced swim test (FST). Those data added to a limited literature in rodents and human subjects which suggests AChEIs have antidepressant properties, but added the novel finding that donepezil only showed antidepressant-like properties at lower doses (0.02, 0.2 mg/kg). At a high dose (2.0 mg/kg), donepezil tended to promote depression-like behavior, suggesting a u-shaped dose-response curve for FST immobility. Here we investigate the effects of three other AChEIs with varying molecular structures: galantamine, physostigmine, and rivastigmine, to test whether they also exhibit antidepressant-like effects in the FST. We find that these drugs do exhibit therapeutic-like effects at low but not high doses, albeit at lower doses for physostigmine. Further, we find that their antidepressant-like effects are not mediated by generalized hyperactivity in the novel open field test, and are also not accompanied by anxiolytic-like properties. These data further support the hypothesis that acetylcholine has a u-shaped dose-response relationship with immobility in the C57BL/6J mouse FST, and provide a rationale for more thoroughly investigating whether reversible AChEIs as a class can be repurposed for the treatment of MDD in human subjects.

Activation of cholinergic system partially rescues olfactory dysfunction-induced learning and memory deficit in mice.

Deficits in olfaction are associated with neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease. A recent study reported that intranasal zinc sulfate (ZnSO4)-treated mice show olfaction and memory deficits. However, it remains unknown whether olfaction deficit-induced learning and memory impairment is associated with the cholinergic system in the brain. In this study, we evaluated olfactory function by the buried food find test, and learning and memory function by the Y-maze and passive avoidance tests in ZnSO4-treated mice. The expression of choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) protein in the olfactory bulb (OB), prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, and amygdala was assessed by western blotting. Moreover, we observed the effect of the acetylcholinesterase inhibitor physostigmine on ZnSO4-induced learning and memory deficits. We found that intranasal ZnSO4-treated mice exhibited olfactory dysfunction, while this change was recovered on day 14 after treatment. Both short-term and long-term learning and memory were impaired on days 4 and 7 after treatment with ZnSO4, whereas the former, but not the latter, was recovered on day 14 after treatment. A significant correlation was observed between olfactory function and short-term memory, but not long-term memory. Treatment with ZnSO4 decreased the ChAT level in the OB on day 4, and increased and decreased the ChAT levels in the OB and hippocampus on day 7, respectively. Physostigmine improved the ZnSO4-induced deficit in short-term, but not long-term, memory. Taken together, the present results suggest that short-term memory may be closely associated with olfactory function via the cholinergic system.

Discovery of new acetylcholinesterase inhibitors for Alzheimer's disease: virtual screening and in vitro characterisation.

For more than two decades, the development of potent acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitors has been an ongoing task to treat dementia associated with Alzheimer's disease and improve the pharmacokinetic properties of existing drugs. In the present study, we used three docking-based virtual screening approaches to screen both ZINC15 and MolPort databases for synthetic analogs of physostigmine and donepezil, two highly potent AChE inhibitors. We characterised the in vitro inhibitory concentration of 11 compounds, ranging from 14 to 985 µM. The most potent of these compounds, S-I 26, showed a fivefold improved inhibitory concentration in comparison to rivastigmine. Moderate inhibitors carrying novel scaffolds were identified and could be improved for the development of new classes of AChE inhibitors.

Bitter taste receptors stimulate phagocytosis in human macrophages through calcium, nitric oxide, and cyclic-GMP signaling.

Bitter taste receptors (T2Rs) are GPCRs involved in detection of bitter compounds by type 2 taste cells of the tongue, but are also expressed in other tissues throughout the body, including the airways, gastrointestinal tract, and brain. These T2Rs can be activated by several bacterial products and regulate innate immune responses in several cell types. Expression of T2Rs has been demonstrated in immune cells like neutrophils; however, the molecular details of their signaling are unknown. We examined mechanisms of T2R signaling in primary human monocyte-derived unprimed (M0) macrophages (M[Formula: see text]s) using live cell imaging techniques. Known bitter compounds and bacterial T2R agonists activated low-level calcium signals through a pertussis toxin (PTX)-sensitive, phospholipase C-dependent, and inositol trisphosphate receptor-dependent calcium release pathway. These calcium signals activated low-level nitric oxide (NO) production via endothelial and neuronal NO synthase (NOS) isoforms. NO production increased cellular cGMP and enhanced acute phagocytosis ~ threefold over 30-60 min via protein kinase G. In parallel with calcium elevation, T2R activation lowered cAMP, also through a PTX-sensitive pathway. The cAMP decrease also contributed to enhanced phagocytosis. Moreover, a co-culture model with airway epithelial cells demonstrated that NO produced by epithelial cells can also acutely enhance M[Formula: see text] phagocytosis. Together, these data define M[Formula: see text] T2R signal transduction and support an immune recognition role for T2Rs in M[Formula: see text] cell physiology.

Converging evidence that short-active photoperiod increases acetylcholine signaling in the hippocampus.

Seasonal variations in environmental light influence switches between moods in seasonal affective disorder (SAD) and bipolar disorder (BD), with depression arising during short active (SA) winter periods. Light-induced changes in behavior are also seen in healthy animals and are intensified in mice with reduced dopamine transporter expression. Specifically, decreasing the nocturnal active period (SA) of mice increases punishment perseveration and forced swim test (FST) immobility. Elevating acetylcholine with the acetylcholinesterase inhibitor physostigmine induces depression symptoms in people and increases FST immobility in mice. We used SA photoperiods and physostigmine to elevate acetylcholine prior to testing in a probabilistic learning task and the FST, including reversing subsequent deficits with nicotinic and scopolamine antagonists and targeted hippocampal adeno-associated viral administration. We confirmed that physostigmine also increases punishment sensitivity in a probabilistic learning paradigm. In addition, muscarinic and nicotinic receptor blockade attenuated both physostigmine-induced and SA-induced phenotypes. Finally, viral-mediated hippocampal expression of human AChE used to lower ACh levels blocked SA-induced elevation of FST immobility. These results indicate that increased hippocampal acetylcholine neurotransmission is necessary for the expression of SA exposure-induced behaviors. Furthermore, these studies support the potential for cholinergic treatments in depression. Taken together, these results provide evidence for hippocampal cholinergic mechanisms in contributing to seasonally depressed affective states induced by short day lengths.

Combining In Silico and In Vitro Studies to Evaluate the Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitory Profile of Different Accessions and the Biomarker Triterpenes of Centella asiatica.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease and the most cause of dementia in elderly adults. Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is an important beneficial target for AD to control cholinergic signaling deficit. Centella asiatica (CA) has proven to be rich with active ingredients for memory enhancement. In the present study, the chemical profiling of three accession extracts of CA namely SECA-K017, SECA-K018, and, SECA-K019 were performed using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Four biomarker triterpene compounds were detected in all CA accessions. Quantitative analysis reveals that madecassoside was the highest triterpene in all the CA accessions. The biomarker compounds and the ethanolic extracts of three accessions were investigated for their acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitory activity using Ellman's spectrophotometer method. The inhibitory activity of the triterpenes and accession extracts was compared with the standard AChE inhibitor eserine. The results from the in vitro study showed that the triterpene compounds exhibited an AChE inhibitory activity with the half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) values between 15.05 ± 0.05 and 59.13 ± 0.18 µg/mL. Asiatic acid was found to possess strong AChE inhibitory activity followed by madecassic acid. Among the CA accession extracts, SECA-K017 and SECA-K018 demonstrated a moderate AChE inhibitory activity with an IC50 value of 481.5 ± 0.13 and 763.5 ± 0.16 µg/mL, respectively from the in silico docking studies, it is observed that asiatic acid and madecassic acid showed very good interactions with the active sites and fulfilled docking parameters against AChE. The present study suggested that asiatic acid and madecassic acid in the CA accessions could be responsible for the AChE inhibitory action and could be used as markers to guide further studies on CA as potential natural products for the treatment of AD.

Examining the role of muscarinic M5 receptors in VTA cholinergic modulation of depressive-like and anxiety-related behaviors in rats.

Acetylcholine is implicated in mood disorders including depression and anxiety. Increased cholinergic tone in humans and rodents produces pro-depressive and anxiogenic-like effects. Cholinergic receptors in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) are known to mediate these responses in male rats, as measured by the sucrose preference test (SPT), elevated plus maze (EPM), and the forced swim test (FST). However, these effects have not been examined in females, and the VTA muscarinic receptor subtype(s) mediating the pro-depressive and anxiogenic-like behavioral effects of increased cholinergic tone are unknown. We first examined the behavioral effects of increased VTA cholinergic tone in male and female rats, and then determined whether VTA muscarinic M5 receptors were mediating these effects. VTA infusion of the acetylcholinesterase inhibitor physostigmine (0.5 µg, 1 µg and 2 µg/side) in males and females produced anhedonic-like, anxiogenic, pro-depressive-like responses on the SPT, EPM, and FST. In females, VTA administration of the muscarinic M5 selective negative allosteric modulator VU6000181 (0.68 ng, 2.3 ng, 6.8 ng/side for a 3 µM, 10 µM, 30 µM/side infusion) did not alter SPT, EPM nor FST behavior. However, in males intra-VTA infusion of VU6000181 alone reduced time spent immobile on the FST. Furthermore, co-infusion of VU6000181 with physostigmine, in male and female rats, attenuated the pro-depressive and anxiogenic-like behavioral responses induced by VTA physostigmine alone, in the SPT, EPM, and FST. Together, these data reveal a critical role of VTA M5 receptors in mediating the anhedonic, anxiogenic, and depressive-like behavioral effects of increased cholinergic tone in the VTA.

Low acetylcholine during early sleep is important for motor memory consolidation.

The synaptic homeostasis theory of sleep proposes that low neurotransmitter activity in sleep optimizes memory consolidation. We tested this theory by asking whether increasing acetylcholine levels during early sleep would weaken motor memory consolidation. We trained separate groups of adult mice on the rotarod walking task and the single pellet reaching task, and after training, administered physostigmine, an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, to increase cholinergic tone in subsequent sleep. Post-sleep testing showed that physostigmine impaired motor skill acquisition of both tasks. Home-cage video monitoring and electrophysiology revealed that physostigmine disrupted sleep structure, delayed non-rapid-eye-movement sleep onset, and reduced slow-wave power in the hippocampus and cortex. Additional experiments showed that: (1) the impaired performance associated with physostigmine was not due to its effects on sleep structure, as 1 h of sleep deprivation after training did not impair rotarod performance, (2) a reduction in cholinergic tone by inactivation of cholinergic neurons during early sleep did not affect rotarod performance, and (3) stimulating or blocking muscarinic and nicotinic acetylcholine receptors did not impair rotarod performance. Taken together, the experiments suggest that the increased slow wave activity and inactivation of both muscarinic and nicotinic receptors during early sleep due to reduced acetylcholine contribute to motor memory consolidation.

(-)-Phenserine and the prevention of pre-programmed cell death and neuroinflammation in mild traumatic brain injury and Alzheimer's disease challenged mice.

Mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) is a risk factor for neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD). TBI-derived neuropathologies are promoted by inflammatory processes: chronic microgliosis and release of pro-inflammatory cytokines that further promote neuronal dysfunction and loss. Herein, we evaluated the effect on pre-programmed cell death/neuroinflammation/synaptic integrity and function of (-)-Phenserine tartrate (Phen), an agent originally developed for AD. This was studied at two clinically translatable doses (2.5 and 5.0 mg/kg, BID), in a weight drop (concussive) mTBI model in wild type (WT) and AD APP/PSEN1 transgenic mice. Phen mitigated mTBI-induced cognitive impairment, assessed by Novel Object Recognition and Y-maze behavioral paradigms, in WT mice. Phen fully abated mTBI-induced neurodegeneration, evaluated by counting Fluoro-Jade C-positive (FJC+) cells, in hippocampus and cortex of WT mice. In APP/PSEN1 mice, degenerating cell counts were consistently greater across all experimental groups vs. WT mice. mTBI elevated FJC+ cell counts vs. the APP/PSEN1 control (sham) group, and Phen similarly mitigated this. Anti-inflammatory effects on microglial activation (IBA1-immunoreactivity (IR)) and the pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-α were evaluated. mTBI increased IBA1-IR and TNF-α/IBA1 colocalization vs. sham, both in WT and APP/PSEN1 mice. Phen decreased IBA1-IR throughout hippocampi and cortices of WT mice, and in cortices of AD mice. Phen, likewise, reduced levels of IBA1/TNF-α-IR colocalization volume across all areas in WT animals, with a similar trend in APP/PSEN1 mice. Actions on astrocyte activation by mTBI were followed by evaluating GFAP, and were similarly mitigated by Phen. Synaptic density was evaluated by quantifying PSD-95+ dendritic spines and Synaptophysin (Syn)-IR. Both were significantly reduced in mTBI vs. sham in both WT and APP/PSEN1 mice. Phen fully reversed the PSD-95+ spine loss in WT and Syn-IR decrease in both WT and APP/PSEN1 mice. To associate immunohistochemical changes in synaptic markers with function, hippocampal long term potentiation (LTP) was induced in WT mice. LTP was impaired by mTBI, and this impairment was mitigated by Phen. In synopsis, clinically translatable doses of Phen ameliorated mTBI-mediated pre-programmed cell death/neuroinflammation/synaptic dysfunction in WT mice, consistent with fully mitigating mTBI-induced cognitive impairments. Phen additionally demonstrated positive actions in the more pathologic brain microenvironment of AD mice, further supporting consideration of its repurposing as a treatment for mTBI.