Identification of non-adherence to adjuvant letrozole using a population pharmacokinetics approach in hormone receptor-positive breast cancer patients.

BACKGROUND: Letrozole, an aromatase inhibitor metabolised via CYP2A6 and CYP3A4/5 enzymes, is used as adjuvant therapy for women with hormone receptor (HR)-positive early breast cancer. The objective of this study was to quantify the impact of CYP2A6 genotype on letrozole pharmacokinetics (PK), to identify non-adherent patients using a population approach and explore the possibility of a relationship between non-adherence and early relapse. METHODS: Breast cancer patients enrolled in the prospective PHACS study (ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01127295) and treated with adjuvant letrozole 2.5 mg/day were included. Trough letrozole concentrations (Css,trough) were measured every 6 months for 3 years by a validated LC-MS/MS method. Concentration-time data were analysed using non-linear mixed effects modelling. Three methods were evaluated for identification of non-adherent subjects using the base PK model. RESULTS: 617 patients contributing 2534 plasma concentrations were included and led to a one-compartment PK model with linear absorption and elimination. Model-based methods identified 28 % of patients as non-adherent based on high fluctuations of their Css,trough compared to 3 % based on patient declarations. The covariate analysis performed in adherent subjects revealed that CYP2A6 intermediate (IM) and slow metabolisers (SM) had 21 % (CI95 % = 12 - 30 %) and 46 % (CI95 % = 41 - 51 %) lower apparent clearance, respectively, compared to normal and ultrarapid metabolisers (NM+UM). Early relapse (19 patients) was not associated with model-estimated, concentration-based or declared adherence in the total population (p = 0.41, p = 0.37 and p = 0.45, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: These findings will help future investigations focusing on the exposure-efficacy relationship for letrozole in adjuvant setting.

Quantification of the aromatase inhibitor letrozole and its carbinol metabolite in mouse plasma by UHPLC-MS/MS.

A liquid chromatography - electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS) method was developed for the quantification of letrozole, a third-generation aromatase inhibitor, and its main carbinol metabolite (CM) in support of murine pharmacokinetic studies. Using polarity switching, simultaneous ESI-MS measurement of letrozole and CM was achieved in positive and negative mode, respectively. The assay procedure involved a one-step protein precipitation and extraction of all analytes from mouse plasma requiring only 5 µL of sample. Separation was optimized on an Accucore aQ column with gradient elution at a flow rate of 0.4 mL/min in 5 min. Two calibration curves per day over four consecutive measurement days showed satisfactory linear responses (r2 > 0.99) over concentration ranges of 5-1000 ng/mL and 20-2000 ng/mL for letrozole and CM, respectively. No matrix effect was found, and the mean extraction recoveries were 103-108 % for letrozole and 99.8-107 % for CM. Precision and accuracy within a single run and over four consecutive measurement days were verified to be within acceptable limits. Application of the developed method to preclinical pharmacokinetic studies in mice receiving oral letrozole at a dose 1 or 10 mg/kg revealed that the systemic exposure to letrozole was dose-, formulation-, and strain-dependent. These findings may inform the future design of preclinical studies aimed at refining the pharmacological profile of this clinically important drug.

Characterization of Cytosolic Glutathione S-Transferases Involved in the Metabolism of the Aromatase Inhibitor, Exemestane.

Exemestane (EXE) is a hormonal therapy used to treat estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer by inhibiting the final step of estrogen biosynthesis catalyzed by the enzyme aromatase. Cysteine conjugates of EXE and its active metabolite 17ß-dihydro-EXE (DHE) are the major metabolites found in both the urine and plasma of patients taking EXE. The initial step in cysteine conjugate formation is glutathione conjugation catalyzed by the glutathione S-transferase (GST) family of enzymes. The goal of the present study was to identify cytosolic hepatic GSTs active in the GST-mediated metabolism of EXE and 17ß-DHE. Twelve recombinant cytosolic hepatic GSTs were screened for their activity against EXE and 17ß-DHE, and glutathionylated EXE and 17ß-DHE conjugates were detected by ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. GST α (GSTA) isoform 1, GST µ (GSTM) isoform 3 and isoform 1 were active against EXE, whereas only GSTA1 exhibited activity against 17ß-DHE. GSTM1 exhibited the highest affinity against EXE with a Michaelis-Menten constant (KM) value that was 3.8- and 7.1-fold lower than that observed for GSTA1 and GSTM3, respectively. Of the three GSTs, GSTM3 exhibited the highest intrinsic clearance against EXE (intrinsic clearance = 0.14 nl·min-1·mg-1). The KM values observed for human liver cytosol against EXE (46 µM) and 17ß-DHE (77 µM) were similar to those observed for recombinant GSTA1 (53 and 30 µM, respectively). Western blot analysis revealed that GSTA1 and GSTM1 composed 4.3% and 0.57%, respectively, of total protein in human liver cytosol; GSTM3 was not detected. These data suggest that GSTA1 is the major hepatic cytosolic enzyme involved in the clearance of EXE and its major active metabolite, 17ß-DHE. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Most previous studies related to the metabolism of the aromatase inhibitor exemestane (EXE) have focused mainly on phase I metabolic pathways and the glucuronidation phase II metabolic pathway. However, recent studies have indicated that glutathionylation is the major metabolic pathway for EXE. The present study is the first to characterize hepatic glutathione S-transferase (GST) activity against EXE and 17ß-dihydro-EXE and to identify GST α 1 and GST µ 1 as the major cytosolic GSTs involved in the hepatic metabolism of EXE.

Gender-based differences in brain and plasma pharmacokinetics of letrozole in sprague-dawley rats: Application of physiologically-based pharmacokinetic modeling to gain quantitative insights.

Based on the discovery that the estrogen synthase aromatase (CYP19A1) is abundantly expressed in high- grade gliomas, the aromatase inhibitor, letrozole is being investigated in pre-clinical models as a novel agent against this malignancy. Here, we investigated the systemic and brain pharmacokinetics of letrozole following single and steady state dosing in both male and female Sprague-Dawley rats. Furthermore, we employed physiologically-based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling to gain quantitative insights into the blood-brain barrier penetration of this drug. Letrozole (4 mg/kg) was administered intraperitoneally daily for 5 days (for males) and 11 days (for females) and intracerebral microdialysis was performed for brain extracellular fluid (ECF) collection simultaneously with venous blood sampling. Drug levels were measured using HPLC and non-compartmental analysis was conducted employing WinNonlin®. Simcyp animal simulator was used for conducting bottom-up PBPK approach incorporating the specified multi-compartment brain model. Overall, marked gender-specific differences in the systemic and brain pharmacokinetics of letrozole were observed. Letrozole clearance was much slower in female rats resulting in markedly higher plasma and brain drug concentrations. At steady state, the plasma AUC 0-24 was 103.0 and 24.8 µg*h/ml and brain ECF AUC 0-12 was 24.0 and 4.8 µg*h/ml in female and male rats, respectively. The PBPK model simulated brain concentration profiles were in close agreement with the observed profiles. While gender-specific differences in letrozole PK are not observed in the clinical setting, these findings will guide the dose optimization during pre-clinical investigations of this compound. The PBPK model will serve as an important clinical translational tool.

Abemaciclib in combination with endocrine therapy for East Asian patients with HR+, HER2- advanced breast cancer: MONARCH 2 & 3 trials.

This post hoc analysis of MONARCH 2 and MONARCH 3 assesses the efficacy, safety, and pharmacokinetics (PK) of abemaciclib in combination with endocrine therapy (ET) in East Asian patients with hormone receptor positive (HR+), human epidermal growth factor receptor 2-negative (HER2-) advanced breast cancer. MONARCH 2 and MONARCH 3 are global, randomized, double-blind, phase 3 studies of abemaciclib/placebo + fulvestrant and abemaciclib/placebo + nonsteroidal aromatase inhibitor (NSAI, anastrozole or letrozole), respectively. The East Asian population comprised 212 (31.7%) of the 669 intent-to-treat (ITT) population in the MONARCH 2 trial and 144 (29.2%) of the 493 ITT patients in the MONARCH 3 trial. In the East Asian population, median progression-free survival (PFS) was significantly prolonged in the abemaciclib arm compared with placebo in both MONARCH 2 (hazard ratio [HR], 0.520; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.362 to 0.747; P < .001; median: 21.2 vs 11.6 months) and MONARCH 3 (HR, 0.326; 95% CI, 0.200 to 0.531, P < .001; median: not reached vs 12.82 months). Diarrhea (MONARCH 2: 90%; MONARCH 3: 88%) and neutropenia (MONARCH 2: 68%; MONARCH 3: 58%) were the most frequent adverse events observed in the East Asian populations. Abemaciclib exposures and PK were similar in East Asians and the non-East Asian populations of both trials. Abemaciclib in combination with ET in the East Asian populations of MONARCH 2 and MONARCH 3 provided consistent results with the ITT populations, demonstrating improvements in efficacy with generally tolerable safety profiles for patients with HR+, HER2- advanced breast cancer.

PEGylated Nanoliposomes Potentiated Oral Combination Therapy for Effective Cancer Treatment.

The conventional treatment regimen for cancer with a single chemotherapeutic agent is far behind the clinical expectations due to the complexity of cancer biology and is also associated with poor Quality of Life (QOL) due to off-site toxicity and multidrug resistance. In recent years, nanopotentiated combination therapy has shown significant improvement in cancer treatment via a synergistic approach. However, being synthetic in nature, nanocarriers have been associated with the activation of the Complement (C) activation system resulting in serious hypersensitivity reactions known as CActivation Related Pseudoallergy (CARPA) effect once given via intravenous injection. On the other hand, nanopotentiated oral drug delivery offers several advantages for the effective and safe delivery of the drug to the target site. This hypothesis aims to put forward wherein Exemestane (chemotherapeutic agent) and lycopene (herbal bioactive) co-laden into PEGylated liposomes and delivered to the breast cancer via the oral route. PEGylation of the liposomes would prevent both molecules from the harsh microenvironment of the Gastrointestinal Tract (GIT) and would eventually promote their intestinal absorption via the lymphatic pathway to the systemic circulation. Lycopene being a potent antioxidant and anti-cancer herbal bioactive would promote the therapeutic efficacy of the Exemestane via a synergistic approach. This nanopotentiated oral combination therapy would pave the path for the safe and effective treatment of cancer.

Pharmacogenomics of aromatase inhibitors in postmenopausal breast cancer and additional mechanisms of anastrozole action.

Aromatase inhibitors (AIs) reduce breast cancer recurrence and prolong survival, but up to 30% of patients exhibit recurrence. Using a genome-wide association study of patients entered on MA.27, a phase III randomized trial of anastrozole versus exemestane, we identified a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in CUB And Sushi multiple domains 1 (CSMD1) associated with breast cancer-free interval, with the variant allele associated with fewer distant recurrences. Mechanistically, CSMD1 regulates CYP19 expression in an SNP- and drug-dependent fashion, and this regulation is different among 3 AIs: anastrozole, exemestane, and letrozole. Overexpression of CSMD1 sensitized AI-resistant cells to anastrozole but not to the other 2 AIs. The SNP in CSMD1 that was associated with increased CSMD1 and CYP19 expression levels increased anastrozole sensitivity, but not letrozole or exemestane sensitivity. Anastrozole degrades estrogen receptor α (ERα), especially in the presence of estradiol (E2). ER+ breast cancer organoids and AI- or fulvestrant-resistant breast cancer cells were more sensitive to anastrozole plus E2 than to AI alone. Our findings suggest that the CSMD1 SNP might help to predict AI response, and anastrozole plus E2 serves as a potential new therapeutic strategy for patients with AI- or fulvestrant-resistant breast cancers.

Effect of Aromatase Inhibition (Exemestane) on Urine Concentration of Osteoprotegerin in Healthy Postmenopausal Women.

This pilot study examined how exemestane (an aromatase inhibitor [AI]) affected osteoprotegerin (OPG) urine concentrations in postmenopausal women. Exemestane (25 mg, single dose) was given to 14 disease-free women past menopause in this nonrandomized, open-label study. Before dosing, urine specimens were gathered. Three days later, these women returned to provide urine specimens for pharmacokinetic (measurement of major parent drug and enzymatic product) and pharmacodynamic (profiling of OPG) analysis. Urine concentrations of the major parent drug (exemestane) and enzymatic product (17-hydroexemestane) were quantified using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. An analyst software package was used for data processing. Following the manufacturer's guidelines, OPG urine concentrations were quantified using a human osteoprotegerin TNFRSF11b ELISA kit from Sigma-Aldrich. A microplate reader helped to carry out OPG data analysis and processing. Our results highlight that OPG urine concentrations were decreased 3 days after drug dosage (mean predosage OPG concentration, 61.4 ± 24.1 pg/mL; vs mean postdosage OPG concentration, 45.7 ± 22.1 pg/mL; P = .02, Wilcoxon rank test). Among the 14 volunteers enrolled in the study, 4 subjects had an increase of less than 1-fold, and the rest showed an average of a 2-fold decrease in OPG concentration (range, 1.1-5.4; standard deviation, 1.3) after exemestane administration. There was no association between fold decrease in OPG urine concentration and the pharmacokinetics of the major parent drug (exemestane) and its enzymatic product (17-hydroexemestane). We concluded that one of the off-target pharmacological effects of AIs (eg ,exemestane) may result in the reduction of osteoprotegerin.

Boronic-targeted albumin-shell oily-core nanocapsules for synergistic aromatase inhibitor/herbal breast cancer therapy.

Multi-modality strategies of albumin-mediated drug accumulation in tumor, boronate-based active tumor targeting and synergistic cancer therapy were combined together for effective treatment of breast cancer. Herein we report the development of albumin-shell oily-core nanocapsules (NCs), loaded with novel combination of hydrophobic drugs, exemestane (EXE) and hesperetin (HES), for targeted breast cancer therapy. This protein-lipid nanohybrid carrier was successfully fabricated using a simple protein-coating method based on the electrostatic adsorption of negatively charged albumin shell onto the oily core containing cationic surfactant. While EXE was directly encapsulated into the oily core, HES was pre-formulated in the form of phospholipid complex before solubilization in oily phase. In addition to albumin-mediated binding to albondin and SPARC, phenylboronic acid was chemically coupled to the albumin shell to confer additional tumor targeting. The targeted nanocarrier (TNC) demonstrated enhanced internalization into MCF-7 breast cancer cells resulting in synergistic cytotoxic activity with a combination index (CI) of 0.662 and dose reduction index (DRI) of 8.22 and 1.84 for EXE and HES, respectively. In vivo, TNC displayed superior anti-cancer activity in tumor-bearing mice compared to their non-targeted counterparts and the free drug combination. A significant reduction of both tumor volume (7-folds) and Ki67 expression (3-folds) was obtained by the targeted nanocarriers compared to positive control. Overall, the boronic-targeted albumin NCs offer a promising platform for hydrophobic drug combination against cancer therapy.

Nintedanib plus letrozole in early breast cancer: a phase 0/I pharmacodynamic, pharmacokinetic, and safety clinical trial of combined FGFR1 and aromatase inhibition.

BACKGROUND: The combined use of a FGFR1 blocker and aromatase inhibitors is appealing for treating breast cancer patients with FGFR1 amplification. However, no pharmacodynamic studies have addressed the effects of this combined target modulation. We conducted a phase 0/I clinical trial in an adjuvant setting, with the goal of obtaining pharmacodynamic proof of the effects of combined aromatase and FGFR1 inhibition and to establish the RP2D for nintedanib combined with letrozole. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Women with early-stage luminal breast cancer were eligible for enrollment in the study. Dose level 1 was nintedanib (150 mg/bid) plus letrozole (2.5 mg/day) administered for a single 28-day cycle (DLT assessment period), followed by a classic 3 + 3 schedule. FGF23 and 17-B-estradiol levels were determined on days 0 and 15; pharmacokinetic parameters were assessed on days 1 and 28. Patients were allowed to continue treatment for 6 cycles. The primary study endpoint was a demonstration of FGFR1 modulation (defined as a 25% increase in the plasma FGF23 level). RESULTS: A total of 19 patients were enrolled in the study (10 in the expansion cohort following dose escalation). At the RP2D (nintedanib 200 mg/bid plus letrozole 2.5 mg/day), we observed a 55% mean increase in the plasma FGF23 level, and 81.2% of the patients had no detectable level of 17-B-estradiol in their plasma (87.5% of the patients treated with letrozole alone). Nintedanib and letrozole displayed a pharmacokinetic interaction that led to three- and twofold increases in their respective plasma concentrations. Most G3 toxic events (5 out of 6: 2 diarrhea and 3 hypertransaminasemia) occurred subsequent to the DLT assessment period. CONCLUSION: Combined treatment with nintedanib (200 mg/bid) plus letrozole (2.5 mg/day) effectively suppressed FGFR1 and aromatase activity, and these respective doses can be used as starting doses in any subsequent trials. However, drug-drug interactions may produce tolerability issues when these drugs are co-administered for an extended time period (e.g., 6 months). Patients enrolled in future trials with these drugs should be carefully monitored for their FGF23 levels and signs of toxicity, and those findings should guide individualized treatment decisions. TRIAL REGISTRATION: This trial was registered at www.clinicaltrials.gov under reg. # NCT02619162, on December 2, 2015.

Anastrozole Aromatase Inhibitor Plasma Drug Concentration Genome-Wide Association Study: Functional Epistatic Interaction Between SLC38A7 and ALPPL2.

Anastrozole is a widely prescribed aromatase inhibitor for the therapy of estrogen receptor positive (ER+) breast cancer. We performed a genome-wide association study (GWAS) for plasma anastrozole concentrations in 687 postmenopausal women with ER+ breast cancer. The top single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) signal mapped across SLC38A7 (rs11648166, P = 2.3E-08), which we showed to encode an anastrozole influx transporter. The second most significant signal (rs28845026, P = 5.4E-08) mapped near ALPPL2 and displayed epistasis with the SLC38A7 signal. Both of these SNPs were cis expression quantitative trait loci (eQTL)s for these genes, and patients homozygous for variant genotypes for both SNPs had the highest drug concentrations, the highest SLC38A7 expression, and the lowest ALPPL2 expression. In summary, our GWAS identified a novel gene encoding an anastrozole transporter, SLC38A7, as well as epistatic interaction between SNPs in that gene and SNPs near ALPPL2 that influenced both the expression of the transporter and anastrozole plasma concentrations.

Pharmacogenomic Discovery to Function and Mechanism: Breast Cancer as a Case Study.

Biomedical research is undergoing rapid change, with the development of a series of analytical omics techniques that are capable of generating Biomedical Big Data. These developments provide an unprecedented opportunity to gain novel insight into disease pathophysiology and mechanisms of drug action and response-but they also present significant challenges. Pharmacogenomics is a discipline within Clinical Pharmacology that has been at the forefront in defining, taking advantage of, and dealing with the opportunities and challenges of this aspect of the Post-Genome Project world. This overview will describe the evolution of germline pharmacogenomic research strategies as we have moved from an era of candidate genes to agnostic genome-wide association studies (GWAS) coupled with the functional and mechanistic pursuit of GWAS signals. Germline pharmacogenomic studies of breast cancer endocrine therapy will be used to illustrate research strategies that are being applied broadly to omics studies of drug response phenotypes.

Comparison of pharmacokinetics of newly discovered aromatase inhibitors by a cassette microdosing approach in healthy Japanese subjects.

The aim of the present study is to investigate the pharmacokinetics of our newly developed aromatase inhibitors (cetrozole and TMD-322) in healthy subjects by a cassette microdose strategy. A cocktail of cetrozole and TMD-322 was administered intravenously or orally (1.98 µg for each drug) to six healthy volunteers in a crossover fashion. Anastrozole (1.98 µg) was also included in the oral cocktail. Total body clearance and bioavailability were 12.1 ± 7.1 mL/min/kg and 34.9 ± 32.3% for cetrozole, and 16.8 ± 3.5 mL/min/kg and 18.4 ± 12.2% for TMD-322, respectively. The area under the plasma concentration-time curves of cetrozole and TMD-322 after oral administration was markedly lower than that of anastrozole because of their high hepatic clearance. Two subjects out of six exhibited 4- and 17-fold larger exposure of cetrozole than the others following intravenous and oral administration, respectively. Such variation was not observed for TMD-322 and anastrozole. Extensive metabolism of cetrozole and TMD-322 was observed in the CYP2C19 expression system among the test CYP isoforms (CYP1A2, CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP2D6, and CYP3A4). We report the first clinical investigation of our aromatase inhibitors by a cassette microdose strategy in healthy Japanese subjects. This strategy offers an optional approach for candidate selection as a phase zero study in drug development.

The use of aromatase inhibitors in boys with short stature: what to know before prescribing?

Aromatase is a cytochrome P450 enzyme (CYP19A1 isoform) able to catalyze the conversion of androgens to estrogens. The aromatase gene mutations highlighted the action of estrogen as one of the main regulators of bone maturation and closure of bone plate. The use of aromatase inhibitors (AI) in boys with short stature has showed its capability to improve the predicted final height. Anastrozole (ANZ) and letrozole (LTZ) are nonsteroidal inhibitors able to bind reversibly to the heme group of cytochrome P450. In this review, we describe the pharmacokinetic profile of both drugs, discussing possible drug interactions between ANZ and LTZ with other drugs. AIs are triazolic compounds that can induce or suppress cytochrome P450 enzymes, interfering with metabolism of other compounds. Hydroxilation, N-dealkylation and glucoronidation are involved in the metabolism of AIs. Drug interactions can occur with azole antifungals, such as ketoconazole, by inhibiting CYP3A4 and by reducing the clearance of AIs. Antiepileptic drugs (lamotrigine, phenobarbital, and phenytoin) also inhibit aromatase. Concomitant use of phenobarbital or valproate has a synergistic effect on aromatase inhibition. Therefore, it is important to understand the pharmacokinetics of AIs, recognizing and avoiding possible drug interactions and offering a safer prescription profile of this class of aromatase inhibitors. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2017;61(3):391-7.

Impact of the OATP1B1 c.521T>C single nucleotide polymorphism on the pharmacokinetics of exemestane in healthy post-menopausal female volunteers.

WHAT IS KNOWN AND OBJECTIVE: OATP1B1 mediates the transport of a diverse range of amphiphilic organic compounds that include bile acids, steroid conjugates and hormones. This retrospective pharmacogenetic study was conducted to assess the impact of the OATP1B1 c.521T>C single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) on the pharmacokinetics of the steroidal aromatase inhibitor drug exemestane in healthy volunteers. METHODS: Exemestane (25 mg) was administered orally to 14 healthy post-menopausal women. All of the 14 subjects were sampled for pharmacokinetic (PK) analyses and retrospectively genotyped for OATP1B1 c.521T>C (rs 4149056). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: Of the 14 subjects enrolled in the study, five were carriers of the minor C allele (OATP1B1 c.521TC+CC) and the remaining nine were carriers of the OATP1B1 c.521TT genotype. PK was assessed over 8 hours post-dosing. Our results showed statistically significant differences (P=.04) in the plasma exemestane AUC0-8 between the OATP1B1 genotype groups. Our data also showed statistically significant differences (P=.04) in the plasma AUC0-8 of 17-hydroexemestane (the major biologically active metabolite) between the OATP1B1 genotype groups. WHAT IS NEW AND CONCLUSION: Our data suggest that the OAPTP1B1 c.521T>C SNP may influence exemestane pharmacokinetics in humans.

The use of aromatase inhibitors in boys with short stature: what to know before prescribing?

ABSTRACT Aromatase is a cytochrome P450 enzyme (CYP19A1 isoform) able to catalyze the conversion of androgens to estrogens. The aromatase gene mutations highlighted the action of estrogen as one of the main regulators of bone maturation and closure of bone plate. The use of aromatase inhibitors (AI) in boys with short stature has showed its capability to improve the predicted final height. Anastrozole (ANZ) and letrozole (LTZ) are nonsteroidal inhibitors able to bind reversibly to the heme group of cytochrome P450. In this review, we describe the pharmacokinetic profile of both drugs, discussing possible drug interactions between ANZ and LTZ with other drugs. AIs are triazolic compounds that can induce or suppress cytochrome P450 enzymes, interfering with metabolism of other compounds. Hydroxilation, N-dealkylation and glucoronidation are involved in the metabolism of AIs. Drug interactions can occur with azole antifungals, such as ketoconazole, by inhibiting CYP3A4 and by reducing the clearance of AIs. Antiepileptic drugs (lamotrigine, phenobarbital, and phenytoin) also inhibit aromatase. Concomitant use of phenobarbital or valproate has a synergistic effect on aromatase inhibition. Therefore, it is important to understand the pharmacokinetics of AIs, recognizing and avoiding possible drug interactions and offering a safer prescription profile of this class of aromatase inhibitors. Arch Endocrinol Metab. 2017;61(3):391-7.

Variable aromatase inhibitor plasma concentrations do not correlate with circulating estrogen concentrations in post-menopausal breast cancer patients.

PURPOSE: The aromatase inhibitors (AI) exemestane (EXE), letrozole (LET), and anastrozole suppress estrogen biosynthesis, and are effective treatments for estrogen receptor (ER)-positive breast cancer. Prior work suggests that anastrozole blood concentrations are associated with the magnitude of estrogen suppression. The objective of this study was to determine whether the magnitude of estrogen suppression, as determined by plasma estradiol (E2) concentrations, in EXE or LET treated patients is associated with plasma AI concentrations. METHODS: Five hundred post-menopausal women with ER-positive breast cancer were enrolled in the prospective Exemestane and Letrozole Pharmacogenetic (ELPh) Study conducted by the COnsortium on BReast cancer phArmacogomics (COBRA) and randomly assigned to either drug. Estrogen concentrations were measured at baseline and after 3 months of AI treatment and drug concentrations were measured after 1 or 3 months. EXE or LET concentrations were compared with 3-month E2 concentration or the change from baseline to 3 months using several complementary statistical procedures. RESULTS: Four-hundred patients with on-treatment E2 and AI concentrations were evaluable (EXE n = 200, LET n = 200). Thirty (7.6%) patients (EXE n = 13, LET n = 17) had 3-month E2 concentrations above the lower limit of quantification (LLOQ) (median: 4.75; range: 1.42-63.8 pg/mL). EXE and LET concentrations were not associated with on-treatment E2 concentrations or changes in E2 concentrations from baseline (all p > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Steady-state plasma AI concentrations do not explain variability in E2 suppression in post-menopausal women receiving EXE or LET therapy, in contrast with prior evidence in anastrozole treated patients.

Use of anastrozole in the chemoprevention and treatment of breast cancer: A literature review.

Aromatase inhibitors have emerged as an alternative endocrine therapy for the treatment of hormone sensitive breast cancer in postmenopausal women. The use of third-generation inhibitors represented by exemestane, letrozol and anastrozole is currently indicated. Anastrozole is a nonsteroidal compound and a potent selective inhibitor of the aromatase enzyme. Although a few studies have shown that its pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties may be affected by interindividual variability, this drug has been recently used in all configurations of breast cancer treatment. In metastatic disease, it is currently considered the first-line treatment for postmenopausal women with estrogen receptor-positive breast tumors. Anastrozole has shown promising results in the adjuvant treatment of early-stage breast cancer in postmenopausal women. It has also achieved interesting results in the chemoprevention of the disease. Therefore, due to the importance of anastrozole both for endocrine treatment and chemoprevention of hormone-sensitive breast cancer in postmenopausal women, we proposed the current literature review in the SciELO and PubMed database of articles published in the last 10 years.

Prospective assessment of patient-reported outcomes and estradiol and drug concentrations in patients experiencing toxicity from adjuvant aromatase inhibitors.

PURPOSE: Aromatase inhibitors (AI), which decrease circulating estradiol concentrations in post-menopausal women, are associated with toxicities that limit adherence. Approximately one-third of patients will tolerate a different AI after not tolerating the first. We report the effect of crossover from exemestane to letrozole or vice versa on patient-reported outcomes (PROs) and whether the success of crossover is due to lack of estrogen suppression. METHODS: Post-menopausal women enrolled on a prospective trial initiating AI therapy for early-stage breast cancer were randomized to exemestane or letrozole. Those that discontinued for intolerance were offered protocol-directed crossover to the other AI after a washout period. Changes in PROs, including pain [Visual Analog Scale (VAS)] and functional status [Health Assessment Questionnaire (HAQ)], were compared after 3 months on the first versus the second AI. Estradiol and drug concentrations were measured. RESULTS: Eighty-three patients participated in the crossover protocol, of whom 91.3% reported improvement in symptoms prior to starting the second AI. Functional status worsened less after 3 months with the second AI (HAQ mean change AI #1: 0.2 [SD 0.41] vs. AI #2: -0.05 [SD 0.36]; p = 0.001); change in pain scores was similar between the first and second AI (VAS mean change AI #1: 0.8 [SD 2.7] vs. AI #2: -0.2 [SD 2.8]; p = 0.19). No statistical differences in estradiol or drug concentrations were found between those that continued or discontinued AI after crossover. CONCLUSIONS: Although all AIs act via the same mechanism, a subset of patients intolerant to one AI report improved PROs with a different one. The mechanism of this tolerance remains unknown, but does not appear to be due to non-adherence to, or insufficient estrogen suppression by, the second AI.

Discovery of indazole aldosterone synthase (CYP11B2) inhibitors as potential treatments for hypertension.

We report the discovery and hit-to-lead optimization of a structurally novel indazole series of CYP11B2 inhibitors. Benchmark compound 34 from this series displays potent inhibition of CYP11B2, high selectivity versus related steroidal and hepatic CYP targets, and lead-like physical and pharmacokinetic properties. On the basis of these and other data, the indazole series was progressed to lead optimization for further refinement.