Mobile Monkeys and Modified Microbes: Medical Experimentation between Metropolitan and Colonial Laboratories, 1880-ca. 1925.

Following the medical breakthroughs of Pasteur and Koch after 1880, the use of simians became pivotal to laboratory research to develop vaccines and cultivate microbes through the technique of serial passage. These innovations fueled research on multiple diseases and unleashed a demand for simians, which died easily in captivity. European and American colonial expansion facilitated a burgeoning market for laboratory animals that intensified hunting for live animals. This demand created novel opportunities for disease transfers and viral recombinations as simians of different species were confined in precarious settings. As laboratories moved into the colonies for research into a variety of diseases, notably syphilis, sleeping sickness, and malaria, the simian market was intensified. While researchers expected that colonial laboratories offered more natural environments than their metropolitan affiliates, amassing apes, people, microbes, and insects at close quarters instead created unnatural conditions that may have facilitated the spread of undetectable diseases.

50 Years of the IAEA/WHO postal dose audit programme for radiotherapy: what can we learn from 13756 results?

Background: The IAEA/WHO postal dose audit programme has been operating since 1969 with the aim of improving the accuracy and consistency of dosimetry in radiotherapy in low-income and middle-income countries world-wide. This study summarises the 50 years' experience of audits and explores the quality of reference dosimetry in participating radiotherapy centres throughout the years.Material and methods: During the IAEA/WHO postal audits the dose determined from the mailed dosimeter is compared with that stated by the participant. Agreement to within ±5% is regarded acceptable whilst deviations outside ±5% limits trigger follow-up actions. Of particular interest in this study was the dependence of clinical dosimetry quality on factors related to the centre infrastructure and expertise in dosimetry of its staff.Results: The IAEA/WHO dose audit programme noted great increase in the overall percentage of acceptable results from about 50% in its early years to 99% at present, although there is some variability of results amongst participating countries. Whereas results for younger radiotherapy machines show the agreement rate between the measured and the stated doses well above 90%, for those over 20 years old the rate dropped to <80%. Linac dosimetry was always better than 60Co dosimetry and multi-machine centres generally performed better than single machine centres equipped with cobalt alone. Second and subsequent participation in audits showed higher quality dosimetry than the first participation. The implementation of modern dosimetry protocols resulted in more accurate dosimetry than the use of the older protocols.Conclusions: Over the 50 years that the IAEA has accumulated dosimetry audit data, practices in radiotherapy centres have significantly improved. Higher quality dosimetry confirmed in audits is generally associated with better infrastructure and adequate dosimetry expertise of medical physicists in participating centres.

[Pediatrics and travel culture: Spanish travel award-holders and the appropriation of laboratories on the periphery, 1907-1939]. / Pediatría y cultura de viaje: los pensionados españoles y la apropiación del laboratorio en la periferia, 1907-1939.

Starting from the hypothesis that laboratories played an important role in pediatrics becoming an autonomous discipline, this article studies the influence of scientific travel on the appropriation of new methodologies by Spanish pediatricians and child-care experts in the first third of the twentieth century. To do so, it analyzes the travel awards granted by the Junta para Ampliación de Estudios e Investigaciones Científicas. It describes the scientific geography created by the program and takes an in-depth look at the role of mentors - especially Gustavo Pittaluga (1876-1956) - in this process. In addition to a prosopographical study of the group, it presents three cases that demonstrate the importance of the program in bringing pediatrics into contact with bacteriology, pathological anatomy and biochemistry.

Partiendo de la hipótesis de que el laboratorio jugó un papel importante en la autonomía disciplinar de la pediatría, este artículo estudia la influencia del viaje científico en la apropiación de nuevas metodologías por parte de los pediatras y puericultores españoles del primer tercio del siglo XX. Para ello, se analizan las pensiones concedidas a tal efecto por la Junta para Ampliación de Estudios e Investigaciones Científicas. Se describe la geografía científica creada por el programa y se profundiza en el papel de los mentores ­ especialmente de Gustavo Pittaluga (1876-1956) ­ en este proceso. Además de un estudio prosopográfico del grupo, se presentan tres casos que demuestran la importancia del programa en el encuentro de la pediatría con la bacteriología, la anatomía patológica y la bioquímica.

Pediatría y cultura de viaje: los pensionados españoles y la apropiación del laboratorio en la periferia, 1907-1939 / Pediatrics and travel culture: Spanish travel award-holders and the appropriation of laboratories on the periphery, 1907-1939

Resumen Partiendo de la hipótesis de que el laboratorio jugó un papel importante en la autonomía disciplinar de la pediatría, este artículo estudia la influencia del viaje científico en la apropiación de nuevas metodologías por parte de los pediatras y puericultores españoles del primer tercio del siglo XX. Para ello, se analizan las pensiones concedidas a tal efecto por la Junta para Ampliación de Estudios e Investigaciones Científicas. Se describe la geografía científica creada por el programa y se profundiza en el papel de los mentores - especialmente de Gustavo Pittaluga (1876-1956) - en este proceso. Además de un estudio prosopográfico del grupo, se presentan tres casos que demuestran la importancia del programa en el encuentro de la pediatría con la bacteriología, la anatomía patológica y la bioquímica.

Abstract Starting from the hypothesis that laboratories played an important role in pediatrics becoming an autonomous discipline, this article studies the influence of scientific travel on the appropriation of new methodologies by Spanish pediatricians and child-care experts in the first third of the twentieth century. To do so, it analyzes the travel awards granted by the Junta para Ampliación de Estudios e Investigaciones Científicas. It describes the scientific geography created by the program and takes an in-depth look at the role of mentors - especially Gustavo Pittaluga (1876-1956) - in this process. In addition to a prosopographical study of the group, it presents three cases that demonstrate the importance of the program in bringing pediatrics into contact with bacteriology, pathological anatomy and biochemistry.

Journey to Now: The Origins of ABRF.

The development and expansion of the core facility concept are <4 decades old. The factors that favored the use of shared instrumentation facilities and the requirement for expert staff are covered by one of the founders of the Association of Biomolecular Resource Facilities (ABRF). During the decade when grants for shared instruments and the release of modern, automated instruments flourished, protocol development for those new instruments came primarily out of laboratories of the type we now call core facilities. Because of the new technologies available, new protocols were required to meet the needs of research communities, and much of the development took place in the diverse core facilities. Furthermore, technology development itself was a frequent activity in core facilities. Although guidelines for the operation of core facilities were not available in the early days of core facility operation, they evolved over time. Cost recovery was, and is still, one of the most problematic issues for core facilities. ABRF-supported research groups offered members opportunities to evaluate their capabilities with both lab-developed protocols and study-specified protocols and with comparative data collected in surveys of core facilities. Research groups are a premier activity of ABRF and its members. More new developing technologies have followed using this pattern of collaboration among core facilities and with industry. The exhibition floor at ABRF annual meetings shows off many of the results of these collaborations.

Physiology studies and scientific exchange in the Anthropology Laboratory of the National Museum of Rio de Janeiro (1910s-1920s).

The main purpose of this study is the scientific practice of Edgard Roquette-Pinto at the National Museum of Rio de Janeiro during the 1910's and 1920's in the XXth Century. The article examines the relationship between laboratory science and nation building. Driven by Physicians-Anthropologists like Edgard Roquette-Pinto among others, the investigations performed at the Anthropology Laboratory there reveal the dynamic of the borders between Laboratory and Field Sciences, and the new biological parameters adopted at that time. The investigative agenda involved plants, animals and human bodies, and it was related to the current Anthropology concept aligned with the debate of Nation construction. The physiological studies amplified the scientific exchange with different institutions, emphasizing cultural exchange between Brazil and Paraguay, and the role played by Edgard Roquette-Pinto there as he inaugurated the Physiological course at Faculty of Medicine at University of Asunción.

Sir Patrick Manson at home: 21 Queen Anne Street as a hybrid space.

Colonial physician and father of tropical medicine Sir Patrick Manson (1844-1922) is most closely associated with his research in China or teaching at the London School of Tropical Medicine, which he founded in 1899. This paper reconsiders Manson's life and work through a new spatial lens - that of his home at 21 Queen Anne Street. Drawing on glimpses of Manson's London house from his biographies and surviving archives, 21 Queen Anne Street is presented as a hybrid space - drawing together scientific, clinical and social networks and activities. Taking the form of a tour, this paper interrogates the internal divisions of the five-story building - focusing in particular on Manson's home laboratory, the 'muck room', and his consulting room. It explores how boundaries between spaces within the house were managed but also transgressed by Manson and his imperial family. It suggests the need to think more broadly about the spatial contexts of medical practice and research in late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

The history of Rhoton's Lab.

The work performed in Dr. Rhoton's Lab, represented by over 500 publications on microneurosurgical anatomy, greatly contributed to improving the level of neurosurgical treatment throughout the world. The authors reviewed the development and activities of the Lab over 40 years. Dr. Albert L. Rhoton Jr., the founder of, and leader in, this field, displayed great creativity and ingenuity during his life. He devoted himself to perfecting his study methodology, employing high-definition photos and slides to enhance the quality of his published papers. He dedicated his life to the education of neurosurgeons. His "lab team," which included microneuroanatomy research fellows, medical illustrators, lab directors, and secretaries, worked together under his leadership to develop the methods and techniques of anatomical study to complete over 160 microneurosurgical anatomy projects. The medical illustrators adapted computer technologies and integrated art and science in the field of microneurosurgical anatomy. Dr. Rhoton's fellows established methods of injecting colors and pursued a series of projects to innovate surgical approaches and instruments over a 40-year period. They also continued to help Dr. Rhoton to conduct international educational activities after returning to their home countries. Rhoton's Lab became a world-renowned anatomical lab as well as a microsurgical training center and generated the knowledge necessary to perform accurate, gentle, and safe surgery for the sake of patients.

The contribution of the Clinica del Lavoro of Milan to the development of industrial hygiene and toxicology in the twentieth century.

In 1910, the founder of the Clinica del Lavoro of Milan, Luigi Devoto established a chemistry laboratory in the new institute, sustaining its importance in the study of occupational diseases. In 1948, the new director of the Clinica, Enrico C. Vigliani established the first laboratory of industrial hygiene in Italy, in the years of the economic boom. In 1960s, this laboratory, directed by Nicola Zurlo, significantly contributed to the research in the field. In 1980s and 1990s, the laboratory of the Clinica started to explore the field of environmental toxicology, studying the effects of benzene and other traffic pollutants on the general population. The analysis of history of the Clinica del Lavoro of Milan may represent a valuable tool for studying the origin and the development of industrial hygiene, occupational and environmental toxicology in the twentieth century.

From Bombay to Rio de Janeiro: the circulation of knowledge and the establishment of the Manguinhos laboratory, 1894-1902. / De Bombaim ao Rio de Janeiro: circulação de conhecimento e a criação do Laboratório de Manguinhos, 1894-1902.

In order to understand the 1900 establishment of the Federal Serum Therapy Institute of Manguinhos and its earliest scientific work, we must analyze the circulation of knowledge and international disputes surrounding antiplague serums and vaccines. This article discusses the development of the first antiplague serum, in Paris, and the trials conducted in India, which started in 1897. It also examines the invention of an antiplague vaccine in Bombay around the same time and the ensuing controversy involving it and the French serum. The article then explores the pathways by which these objects reached Brazil and also looks at how local issues there meshed with the international scientific dispute, ultimately justifying reconfigurations of the two objects in Rio de Janeiro.

Para se compreender a fundação, em 1900, e os primeiros trabalhos científicos do Instituto Soroterápico Federal, é necessário analisar a circulação de conhecimento e a disputa internacional envolvendo os soros antipestosos e as vacinas antipestosas. O artigo discute a criação do primeiro soro antipestoso, em Paris, e os testes realizados a partir de 1897 na Índia. Paralelamente, examina a invenção da vacina antipestosa na mesma época em Bombaim e a oposição construída entre ela e o soro antipestoso francês. Em seguida, observa os diferentes caminhos pelos quais esses objetos chegaram ao Brasil e como questões locais se conectaram à disputa científica internacional e justificaram, no Rio de Janeiro, reconfigurações em torno desses dois objetos.

Veterinarians at the Connaught Medical Research Laboratories, 1931-72.

This study traces the changing mission of the University of Toronto's Connaught Medical Research Laboratories regarding the health of animals. We argue that the early work of Connaught's veterinarians in the 1930s and 1940s focused on the care for experimental animals as well as lending veterinary knowledge to problems in human medicine and public health. This gave way to a more direct focus on veterinary products after the Second World War. Connaught was motivated to enter the veterinary field in part to capitalize upon the growing market for veterinary medicines. It met with mixed success in this endeavour. Work was initially focused on livestock medicines and later expanded into products for companion animals, reflecting broader shifts in the veterinary profession and the economic value of animals during the 20th century.

De Bombaim ao Rio de Janeiro: circulação de conhecimento e a criação do Laboratório de Manguinhos, 1894-1902 / From Bombay to Rio de Janeiro: the circulation of knowledge and the establishment of the Manguinhos laboratory, 1894-1902

Resumo Para se compreender a fundação, em 1900, e os primeiros trabalhos científicos do Instituto Soroterápico Federal, é necessário analisar a circulação de conhecimento e a disputa internacional envolvendo os soros antipestosos e as vacinas antipestosas. O artigo discute a criação do primeiro soro antipestoso, em Paris, e os testes realizados a partir de 1897 na Índia. Paralelamente, examina a invenção da vacina antipestosa na mesma época em Bombaim e a oposição construída entre ela e o soro antipestoso francês. Em seguida, observa os diferentes caminhos pelos quais esses objetos chegaram ao Brasil e como questões locais se conectaram à disputa científica internacional e justificaram, no Rio de Janeiro, reconfigurações em torno desses dois objetos.

Abstract In order to understand the 1900 establishment of the Federal Serum Therapy Institute of Manguinhos and its earliest scientific work, we must analyze the circulation of knowledge and international disputes surrounding antiplague serums and vaccines. This article discusses the development of the first antiplague serum, in Paris, and the trials conducted in India, which started in 1897. It also examines the invention of an antiplague vaccine in Bombay around the same time and the ensuing controversy involving it and the French serum. The article then explores the pathways by which these objects reached Brazil and also looks at how local issues there meshed with the international scientific dispute, ultimately justifying reconfigurations of the two objects in Rio de Janeiro.

History, advancements, and perspective of biological research in deep-underground laboratories: A brief review.

The world is entering a new era of exploring and exploiting the deep-underground space. With humans poised to reach historical depths in the use of the deep Earth, it is essential to understand the effect of the deep-underground environment on the health of humans and other living organisms. This article outlines the history and development of biological research conducted in deep-underground laboratories and provides insight into future areas of investigation. Many deep-underground laboratories have investigated the effects of reduced cosmic ray muons flux, searching for rare events such as proton decay, dark matter particles, or neutrino interactions, but few have focused on the influence of the environmental factors in the deep-underground on living organisms. Some studies revealed that prokaryote and eukaryote cells maintained in low levels of background radiation exhibited an stress response, which manifested as changes in cell growth, enzyme activity, and sensitivity to factors that cause genetic damage; however, the underlying mechanisms are unclear. There remains an urgent need to understand the detrimental and beneficial biological effects of low background radiation and other factors in the deep-underground on humans and other organisms. Consequently, a multidisciplinary approach to medical research in the deep-underground has been proposed, creating a new discipline, deep-underground medicine, and representing a historical milestone for exploring the deep Earth and in medical research.

An imperial laboratory: the investigation and treatment of treponematoses in occupied Haiti, 1915-1934 / Um laboratório imperial: investigação e tratamento da treponematose no Haiti ocupado, 1915-1934

This article examines anti-treponematoses work as part of US occupation public health policy in Haiti, a unique event in the history of international health. Yaws was highly prevalent in Haiti, but occupation doctors initially ignored it because of its close association with syphilis and stigmas attached to sexually transmitted disease. This changed when C.S. Butler asserted that yaws was "innocent" and that the two diseases should therefore be considered as one. Treatment increased as an anti-treponematoses campaign was now believed to hold great benefits for the occupation's paternalist and strategic aims, even though it ultimately failed. This work reflected Haiti's status as a public health "laboratory" which affected Haitian medicine for years to come and significantly influenced future campaigns aimed at disease eradication.

Este artigo investiga o trabalho anti-treponêmico como parte da política norte-americana de saúde pública na ocupação do Haiti, evento inédito na história da saúde internacional. Era alta a incidência da bouba no Haiti, mas médicos da ocupação a ignoravam por ser parecida com a sífilis e pelos estigmas da doença sexualmente transmitida. A situação mudou quando C.S. Butler afirmou que a bouba era "inocente" e que as duas doenças deveriam ser consideradas uma. Surgiram mais tratamentos com uma campanha anti-treponêmica que trazia benefícios aos objetivos paternalistas e estratégicos da ocupação, apesar do seu fracasso final. Esse trabalho ilustra o Haiti como "laboratório" de saúde pública, o que afetou a medicina haitiana por anos e influenciou campanhas futuras para erradicar a doença.