Mycobacterium haemophilum infection in immunocompetent adults: a literature review and case report.

BACKGROUND: Mycobacterium haemophilum has been increasingly found in severely immunocompromised patients but is scarcely reported in immunocompetent adults. METHODS: We systematically reviewed previous literature to identify studies on infection in immunocompetent adults. Articles reporting at least one case of M. haemophilum infection were included. We excluded articles involving patients who had immunosuppression-related diseases and routinely used glucocorticoids or immunosuppressants. We also reported a case of a young immunocompetent woman infected by M. haemophilum along the eyebrows, which was probably due to the use of an eyebrow pencil retrieved from a sink drain. RESULTS: Twelve qualifying articles reporting M. haemophilum infection in immunocompetent adults were identified. Among them, most cases report skin lesions along the eyebrows, and the remaining had cervicofacial lymphadenitis, lesions on the arm or fingers, inflammation in the eyeballs, or ulceration in the perineal region. Most cases were caused by tattoos, make-up, injury, or surgical operation. For diagnosis, specialized tissue culture sensitivity was roughly 75%, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test sensitivity was approximately 89%. Triple antibiotic therapy for 3 to 24 months, or surgical excision was effective in controlling infection. CONCLUSION: M. haemophilum infection should be considered if routine antibacterial and glucocorticoid treatments are ineffective against the disease, even in healthy adults. To definitively diagnose this infection, conditioned tissue culture or PCR testing is required. Treatment usually involves a combination of multiple antibiotics and, if necessary, surgical removal of infected tissue.

Mycobacterium haemophilum infection with cutaneous involvement: two case reports and an updated literature review: Mycobacterium haemophilum skin infection.

Mycobacterium haemophilum (MH) is a slow-growing, non-tuberculous Mycobacterium that most commonly causes infections in immunocompromised patients. The skin is the most prevalent site of infection and can be an isolated presentation or part of a disseminated disease. Herein, we reported a case of isolated MH infection of the hand and a case of disseminated MH infection with multiple skin lesions. In addition, other MH cases with cutaneous involvement over the last 10 years, from 2011-2022, were reviewed and analyzed. Among the 79 included cases, the common skin findings in MH infections included nodules, ulcers, abscesses, swelling, and pustules. Middle-aged patients with iatrogenic immunosuppression from glucocorticoids, mycophenolate mofetil, cyclosporine, and cyclophosphamide are the most susceptible to MH infection, with a higher risk of dissemination to internal organs. Disseminated MH infections commonly present as tenosynovitis, arthritis/arthralgia, or osteomyelitis. There is a lack of strong evidence for treatment; however, triple therapy of quinolone, macrolides, and rifampicin is most often used in clinical practice. The overall prognosis is good. The presence of iatrogenic immunocompromised diseases, lesions involving the proximal limbs, and dissemination of MH infections are associated with worse clinical outcomes.

Clinical manifestations, treatment and outcomes of patients infected with Mycobacterium haemophilum with a focus on immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome: a retrospective multi-site study.

BACKGROUND: Mycobacterium haemophilum is a nontuberculous mycobacterium with fastidious in vitro growth requirements and an increasingly reported cause of extrapulmonary disease. Timely diagnosis and management of M. haemophilum infections and the immune reconstitution inflammatory syndromes (IRIS) observed in a subset of patients during treatment remain challenging. METHODS: We conducted a retrospective chart review between January 1, 2010, and January 1, 2022 and identified 26 patients diagnosed with M. haemophilum infection at our institution. We describe their clinical presentation, diagnostic results, management, and outcomes. RESULTS: The majority of patients in our cohort had upper and/or lower extremity skin involvement, were immunosuppressed, and had generally favourable treatment outcomes. All tested M. haemophilum isolates were susceptible in vitro to clarithromycin and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. Moreover, high rates of susceptibility were noted for ciprofloxacin (95%), linezolid (90%), and rifampin (85%). IRIS was identified in 31% of cases and should be considered in patients who develop worsening skin lesions or systemic symptoms following the initiation of effective antimicrobial therapy. Visualisation of acid-fast bacilli on initial tissue stains, a positive mycobacterial blood culture, and rapid de-escalation of tumour necrosis factor-α inhibitors and/or corticosteroids were more frequently encountered among patients in our cohort who developed IRIS. CONCLUSION: M. haemophilum infection should be considered among patients receiving immunomodulatory therapy who develop discoloured or nodular skin lesions involving the extremities, worsening focal arthritis, tenosynovitis, or isolated adenopathy. A heightened awareness of this pathogen's clinical and laboratory characteristics can lead to a timely diagnosis and favourable outcome.

Ocular Mycobacterium haemophilum infection originating in the cornea: a case report.

BACKGROUND: Mycobacterium haemophilum is a slow-growing non-chromogenic nontuberculous Mycobacterium species that can cause skin infection or arthritis in an immunocompromised population or in children. Primary infection of the healthy adult cornea is rare. The special requirements for culture make this pathogen difficult to diagnose. The study aims to report the clinical manifestation and treatment process of corneal infection and notify the awareness of M. Haemophilus keratitis among clinicians. This is the first case report of primary M. haemophilum infection in the cornea of healthy adults reported in the literature. CASE PRESENTATION: A 53-year-old healthy goldminer presented with left eye redness and a history of vision loss for four months. The patient was misdiagnosed with herpes simplex keratitis until M. haemophilum was detected using high-throughput sequencing. Penetrating keratoplasty was performed, and a large number of mycobacteria were detected by Ziehl-Neelsen staining of the infected tissue. Three months later, the patient developed conjunctival and eyelid skin infections that manifested as caseous necrosis of the conjunctiva and skin nodules. After excision and debridement of the conjunctival lesions and systemic antituberculosis drug treatment for 10 months, the patient was cured. CONCLUSION: M. haemophilum could cause primary corneal infection in healthy adults, which is an infrequent or rare infection. Owing to the need for special bacterial culture conditions, conventional culture methods do not provide positive results. High-throughput sequencing can rapidly identify the presence of bacteria, which aids in early diagnosis and timely treatment. Prompt surgical intervention is an effective treatment option for severe keratitis. Long-term systemic antimicrobial therapy is crucial.

Mycobacterium haemophilum infection in canine cerebrospinal fluid.

A 4-year-old female spayed Australian cattle dog was presented to the Emergency Service at the University of Missouri Veterinary Health Center Small Animal Hospital for generalized pain and lethargy. At presentation, the dog showed severe cervical spinal pain and thoracic limb deficits consistent with a multifocal neuroanatomic localization. Magnetic resonance imaging of the cervical spine revealed T2 and T1 postcontrast intense signal extending from the level of the medulla through C5 most marked in the caudal brainstem and cranial cervical spinal cord. The suspected diagnosis was severe meningoencephalomyelitis and secondary edema. Analysis of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) collected from the cerebellomedullary cistern revealed a marked mixed pleocytosis with intralesional structures morphologically consistent with Mycobacterium sp. Standard DNA PCR assay performed on the CSF yielded the presence of Mycobacterium haemophilum. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first reported case of CNS mycobacteriosis diagnosed on CSF analysis in a dog.

[Two severe cases of disseminated cutaneous nontuberculous mycobacteriosis due to Mycobacterium haemophilum]. / Zwei schwere Fälle von disseminiert-kutanen, nichttuberkulösen Mykobakteriosen durch Mycobacterium haemophilum.

Mycobacterium haemophilum is a rare pathogen belonging to the group of slowly growing nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) that can cause infections, especially in immunocompromised patients. Detection by culturing is difficult because M. haemophilum only grows under special cultivation conditions. Therefore, it is believed that the pathogen is too rarely identified as a cause of disease overall. In addition to patients with severe immunodeficiency, e.g. due to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), chemotherapy or immunosuppression after transplantation, patients with underlying rheumatic diseases are increasingly described in the literature, who are at risk due to the immunosuppressive treatment regimen. Clinically, ulcerative skin alterations, lymphadenopathy and arthropathy are in the foreground. In immunosuppressed patients with unclear skin lesions, infections due to M. haemophilum should be considered and specific microbiological diagnostics should be initiated.

Disseminated cutaneous Mycobacterium haemophilum infection in a patient on infliximab for rheumatoid arthritis.

Mycobacterium haemophilum is a rarely encountered pathogen that is difficult to identify given its unique growth requirements. It is most often seen in adult patients who are immunosuppressed due to advanced HIV or haematological malignancy. Our case highlights a typical presentation of an atypical pathogen in a patient with rheumatoid arthritis receiving anti-tumour necrosis factor therapy. This case represents an important patient population in whom this previously rare infection is increasingly common.

Patient on Immunomodulatory Therapy Experiencing Joint Pain and Skin Lesions: A Case Report.

A woman in her late fifties was admitted to the Family Medicine Inpatient Service directly from Rheumatology clinic for polyarticular pain and erythema with concern for infection. She was taking immunosuppressant medications for a history of multiple autoimmune diseases. Examination showed increasing erythema and tenderness on the upper and lower extremity joints. Histologic evaluation, surgical evaluation, and cultures were consistent with mycobacterium haemophilum infection. Mycobacterium haemophilum is an uncommon opportunistic infection that usually affects immunocompromised patients. The patient was treated with a multi-drug antibiotic regimen for several months due to drug resistance. Although this opportunistic infection is not common it should be considered in the differential of immunocompromised patients with skin and articular symptoms. Treatment outcomes are usually favorable if it caught earlier in the course.

Cryptococcal fungemia and Mycobacterium haemophilum cellulitis in a patient receiving ruxolitinib: a case report and literature review.

BACKGROUND: Ruxolitinib is a novel oral Janus kinase inhibitor that is used for treatment of myeloproliferative diseases. It exhibits potent anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effects, and may increase the risk of opportunistic infections. Here, we report a rare case of Cryptococcus neoformans and Mycobacterium haemophilum coinfection in a myelofibrosis patient who was receiving ruxolitinib. CASE PRESENTATION: A 70-year-old Thai man who was diagnosed with JAK2V617F-mutation-positive primary myelofibrosis had been treated with ruxolitinib for 4 years. He presented with cellulitis at his left leg for 1 week. Physical examination revealed fever, dyspnea, desaturation, and sign of inflammation on the left leg and ulcers on the right foot. Blood cultures showed positive for C. neoformans. He was prescribed intravenous amphotericin B deoxycholate with a subsequent switch to liposomal amphotericin B due to the development of acute kidney injury. He developed new onset of fever after 1 month of antifungal treatment, and the lesion on his left leg had worsened. Biopsy of that skin lesion was sent for mycobacterial culture, and the result showed M. haemophilum. He was treated with levofloxacin, ethambutol, and rifampicin; however, the patient eventually developed septic shock and expired. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first case of C. neoformans and M. haemophilum coinfection in a patient receiving ruxolitinib treatment. Although uncommon, clinicians should be aware of the potential for multiple opportunistic infections that may be caused by atypical pathogens in patients receiving ruxolitinib.

Mycobacterium haemophilum scleritis: two case reports and review of literature.

BACKGROUND: Mycobacterium haemophilum is a rare and emerging nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM). It normally causes localized or disseminated systemic diseases, particularly skin infections and arthritis in severely immunocompromised patients. There have been 5 cases of M. haemophilum ocular infections reported in the literature. Only 1 case presented with scleritis with keratitis. Here, we reported 2 cases of M. haemophilum scleritis. One of them was immunocompetent host and had keratitis with radial keratoneuritis as a presenting sign. CASE PRESENTATION: Case 1: A 52-year-old Thai female with rheumatoid arthritis presented with scleritis. Conjunctival scraping was carried out and the culture result was positive for M. haemophilum. Despite receiving systemic and topical antibiotics, her clinical symptoms and signs worsened. Surgical debridement was performed. After surgery, the lesion was significantly improved and finally turned to conjunctival scarring. Case 2: A 32-year old healthy Thai male without underlying disease presented with nodular scleritis and keratouveitis with multiple radial keratoneuritis. Surgical debridement of the scleral nodule was performed. Initial microbiological investigations were negative. Herpes ocular infections was suspected. Topical antibiotics, oral acyclovir, low-dose topical steroids and systemic steroids were started. The scleral inflammation subsided but later the keratitis relapsed, requiring corneal biopsy. Histopathology of the specimen revealed acid-fast bacteria and M. haemophilum was identified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequencing. The diagnosis of Mycobacterial keratitis was made. Although using the combination of systemic and topical antibiotics, his clinical status progressively deteriorated. Multiple therapeutic penetrating keratoplasties were required to eradicate the infection. No recurrence was found during the 1-year follow-up in both cases. CONCLUSIONS: M. haemophilum can cause scleritis and keratitis, even in immunocompenent host. Radial keraoneuritis is first described in M. haemophilum keratitis. NTM keratitis should be considered in the differential diagnosis of patients with radial keratoneuritis. Increased awareness and early diagnosis using appropriate culture conditions and molecular techniques are important for the proper treatment of this infection. Prompt surgical intervention appears to be vital for successful management of M. haemophilum scleritis and keratitis.

Mycobacterium haemophilum skin and soft tissue infection in a kidney transplant recipient: A case report and summary of the literature.

Non-tuberculous mycobacteria are ubiquitous pathogens causing infections in immunocompromised patients. Here, we describe a kidney transplant recipient who developed skin and soft tissue infection by Mycobacterium haemophilum, complicated by tenosynovitis and fluid collection, following an injury sustained to her right foot. Her immunosuppressant dose was reduced, and she underwent prolonged antimicrobial therapy followed by surgical debridement with a favorable outcome. Non-tuberculous mycobacteria should be considered as a potential etiology of subacute skin and soft tissue infections.