Preparatory Year Students' Perception of Pharmacy Profession as a Career Choice: A Cross-Sectional Study

Abstract The study attempted to assess preparatory year students' perception towards pharmacists and the pharmacy profession. This cross-sectional survey was conducted between December 2019 and March 2020. The students were invited to complete an anonymous questionnaire via Google Forms®. In total, 244 students, of which 53.7% were female with the mean age of 19.2 ± 0.65, from 12 universities participated in this study. As per our findings, the majority of the respondents (91.8%) regard pharmacy as a well-respected profession, 82.4% thought pharmacists are important decision-makers, 68.4% disagreed that most pharmacists were unkind, and 60.7% did not agree that pharmacy was a low-status occupation. Meanwhile, 95.5% agreed that pharmacists must have a university degree, 88.6% agreed pharmacists must take responsibility for patients, and 82.8% believed pharmacists had to work too hard. Moreover, 62.3% did not think pharmacy was a low-skill occupation, 54.9% did not agree pharmacists must do unpleasant things, and 45.1% disagreed pharmacists only did what physicians requested of them. Lastly, 48.8% had low confidence in choosing pharmacy as a career. The students' overall perception toward pharmacists and the pharmacy profession was favorable. However, only one-fourth of the students displayed a tendency to choose pharmacy as a future career.

Der SV12: Entwicklung eines klinischen Inventars zur Erfassung von Sensibilität und deren Verarbeitungsproblematiken.

Hintergrund: Zur Erfassung einer erhöhten Verarbeitungssensibilität bei Patienten in der stationären psychosomatischen Behandlung wurde ein Fragebogen entwickelt, der anders als Fragebögen zur Messung von Hochsensibilität die Konstrukte der Wahrnehmungssensibilität und Verarbeitungsproblematik trennen soll. Methoden: Zunächst wurde eine 30 Items umfassende Version an einer klinischen und einer nichtklinischen Stichprobe mit jeweils 1'103 Patienten erhoben und faktoranalytisch ausgewertet. Daraus konnte eine Kurzform mit 12 Items extrahiert werden, die im klini-schen Einsatz wiederholt validiert wurde. Ergebnisse: Sowohl in der klinischen und der nichtklinischen Stichprobe der Langform als auch in der Kurzform ergeben sich zwei Faktoren mit Cronbachs Alpha von 0,84 und 0,77, welche die Konstrukte der Sensibilität und Verarbeitungsproblematik eindeutig trennen. Weitere faktorielle Unterscheidungen waren nicht einheitlich. Kurz- und Langform zeigten mit Werten zwischen r = 0,87 und 0,94 eine hohe Übereinstimmung. Eine Referenzskala wurde ebenfalls erstellt. Fazit: Durch die differenzierte Erfassung der Sensibilität und der therapeutisch relevanten Aspekte der Verarbeitungspro-blematiken erscheint die Verwendung in der klinischen Dia-gnostik sinnvoll.

The case against specialized visual-spatial short-term memory.

The dominant paradigm for understanding working memory, or the combination of the perceptual, attentional, and mnemonic processes needed for thinking, subdivides short-term memory (STM) according to whether memoranda are encoded in aural-verbal or visual formats. This traditional dissociation has been supported by examples of neuropsychological patients who seem to selectively lack STM for either aural-verbal, visual, or spatial memoranda, and by experimental research using dual-task methods. Though this evidence is the foundation of assumptions of modular STM systems, the case it makes for a specialized visual STM system is surprisingly weak. I identify the key evidence supporting a distinct verbal STM system-patients with apparent selective damage to verbal STM and the resilience of verbal short-term memories to general dual-task interference-and apply these benchmarks to neuropsychological and experimental investigations of visual-spatial STM. Contrary to the evidence on verbal STM, patients with apparent visual or spatial STM deficits tend to experience a wide range of additional deficits, making it difficult to conclude that a distinct short-term store was damaged. Consistently with this, a meta-analysis of dual-task visual-spatial STM research shows that robust dual-task costs are consistently observed regardless of the domain or sensory code of the secondary task. Together, this evidence suggests that positing a specialized visual STM system is not necessary. (PsycINFO Database Record

Long-term reliability of the visual EEG Poffenberger paradigm.

The Poffenberger paradigm is a simple perception task that is used to estimate the speed of information transfer between the two hemispheres, the so-called interhemispheric transfer time (IHTT). Although the original paradigm is a behavioral task, it can be combined with electroencephalography (EEG) to assess the underlying neurophysiological processes during task execution. While older studies have supported the validity of both paradigms for investigating interhemispheric interactions, their long-term reliability has not been assessed systematically before. The present study aims to fill this gap by determining both internal consistency and long-term test-retest reliability of IHTTs produced by using the two different versions of the Poffenberger paradigm in a sample of 26 healthy subjects. The results show high reliability for the EEG Poffenberger paradigm. In contrast, reliability measures for the behavioral Poffenberger paradigm were low. Hence, our results indicate that electrophysiological measures of interhemispheric transfer are more reliable than behavioral measures; the later should be used with caution in research investigating inter-individual differences of neurocognitive measures.

Percepção dos profissionais de um Centro de Saúde Escola referente à atuação na área de Nutrição / Professionals? perception at a School-based Health Center (SBHC) regarding nutritional assistance

In this study, we aimed to identify the perception of professionals workingat a School-based Health Center (SBHC) regarding nutritional assistance.The methodological approach was qualitative. Semi-structured interviews with open questions and audio recordings were carried out with participants' consent. Professionals who are directly or indirectlyinvolved in the nutrition were interviewed. Analysis of the given statements consisted in identifying recurring speech cores, seekingclarification of content and ensuring the understanding of the professionals' perceptions. In the group of 17 respondents, aged 24 to 63, 70.6% were women. One of the identified core themes was the multidisciplinary team. It presents positive aspects because it allows the contact between different professional health areas. Regarding the negative aspects, the small number of nutritionists in the service should be highlighted. Another identified core was the need for works that transcend the service, to complement and reinforce information on food. Furthermore, health education makes a difference to nutrition and other areas as well. In this sense, proposal of new areas and strategies beyond the boundaries of the School-based Health Center would allow to reach a greater number of people and increase knowledge in the nutritional and consequently individual autonomy.

Este estudio tuvo como objetivo identificar la percepción de los profisionales de un Centro de Salud Escolar con relación a su atuaciónen el área de nutrición. La metodología utilizada fue cualitativa mediante entrevistas semiestructuradas, con preguntas abiertas y grabadas en audio, a los profesionales que actúan directa o indirectamente con cuestiones relativas al área de nutrición. Se analizaron los testimoniosde los testimonios de los sujetos identificando núcleos recurrentes en sus discursos, buscando explicitar los contenidos, garantizando la comprensión de sus percepciones. De los 17 profesionales entrevistados, el 70,6% fueron mujeres de entre 24 y 63 años. Uno de los núcleos temáticos identificados fue el trabajo en equipo multidisciplinario, que presentó aspectos positivos porque permite el contacto entre las diferentes áreas profesionales de la salud. Entre los aspectos negativos, algunos resaltaron el reducido número de nutricionistas en servicio. La Educación en Salud fue destacada como un aspecto diferencial para todas las áreas de actuación, pero sobre todo para la nutrición. En este sentido, las propuestas de nuevos espacios y estrategias que trascendieran el servicio permitirían alcanzar un mayor número de personas, ampliando el conocimiento general en el área de nutrición y, en consecuencia, la autonomía individual.

O presente trabalho objetivou identificar a percepção dos profissionais de um Centro de Saúde Escola referente à atuação na área de Nutrição. A metodologia desenvolvida foi qualitativa mediante entrevistas semiestruturadas, com perguntas abertas e audiogravadas dos profissionais que atuam direta ou indiretamente com questões relacionadas à área de Nutrição. A análise das falas dos sujeitos foi realizada por meio da identificação de núcleos recorrentes nos discursos, buscando a explicitação dos conteúdos, garantindo a compreensão da percepção dos profissionais. No grupo de 17 profissionais entrevistados, 70,6% foram mulheres, com faixa etária entre 24 e 63 anos. Um dos núcleos temáticos identificados foi o trabalho em equipe multidisciplinar, que apresenta aspectos positivos, porque permite o contato com as diferentes áreas profissionais da saúde. Em relação aos aspectos negativos, alguns ressaltaram o número reduzido de Nutricionistas no serviço. A educação em saúde é destacada como um diferencial para todas as áreas de atuação, sobretudo para a Nutrição. Nesse sentido, propostas de novos espaços e estratégias que transcendessem o serviço possibilitariam atingir um maior número de pessoas, ampliando-se o conhecimento geral na área de Nutrição e, consequentemente, a autonomia individual.

La calidad de vida: Análisis multidimensional / The quality of life: Multidimensional analysis

Objetivo: Analizar el concepto de calidad de vida. Su estudio se amplió considerablemente a partir del siglo XX. El concepto se considera multidimensional dentro de una perspectiva formativa, debido a que éste cambia con las diferentes culturas, épocas y grupos sociales. Se realiza una revisión por diferentes autores.

Objective: To analyze the concept of quality of life. His study was expanded considerably in the twentieth century. The concept is considered multidimensional in a formative perspective due to be changed with the different cultures, ages and social groups. A review by different authors.

Perceptual and motor attribute ratings for 559 object concepts.

To understand how and when object knowledge influences the neural underpinnings of language comprehension and linguistic behavior, it is critical to determine the specific kinds of knowledge that people have. To extend the normative data currently available, we report a relatively more comprehensive set of object attribute rating norms for 559 concrete object nouns, each rated on seven attributes corresponding to sensory and motor modalities-color, motion, sound, smell, taste, graspability, and pain-in addition to familiarity (376 raters, M = 23 raters per item). The mean ratings were subjected to principal-components analysis, revealing two primary dimensions plausibly interpreted as relating to survival. We demonstrate the utility of these ratings in accounting for lexical and semantic decision latencies. These ratings should prove useful for the design and interpretation of experimental tests of conceptual and perceptual object processing.

Is synaesthesia one condition or many? A large-scale analysis reveals subgroups.

Synaesthesia is a broadly defined neural phenomenon in which stimulation of a sense or concept triggers a second perception not normally associated with the stimulus. For example, letters or numbers may trigger a colour experience, sounds may trigger a taste sensation, or tastes may trigger a feeling of touch. Dozens of forms of synaesthesia have been reported, but the relationship between the different forms has not been studied: is someone with a particular form of synaesthesia likely to possess other types? If so, which ones? As an inroad to illuminating underlying mechanisms, we here examine which different synaesthesia types tend to co-occur. We analyzed reports of the forms of synaesthesia experienced by 19,133 participants who completed the Synaesthesia Battery (Eagleman, Kagan, Nelson, Sagaram, & Sarma, 2007), using correlation analysis, exploratory factor analysis (EFA), confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), and multidimensional scaling (MDS). Our analyses converged on the finding of five distinct groupings of synaesthesia forms. We label these coloured sequence synaesthesias (CSSs), coloured music synaesthesias, non-visual sequela synaesthesias, spatial sequence synaesthesia (SSS), and coloured sensation synaesthesias. Collectively, our findings reveal that synaesthesia is an umbrella term that encompasses several distinct groups with independent probabilities of expression, and this may in turn suggest distinct underlying mechanisms and the possibility of different genetic bases.

Personal perception and personal factors: incorporating health-related quality of life into the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health.

PURPOSE: The International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF), introduced by the World Health Organisation in 2001, offers a unique perspective from which to view the role of rehabilitation in one's lived experience of a health condition. However, the ICF does not capture the individual's perception of that experience that is key to understanding functioning, disability and quality of life (QOL) and more specifically health-related quality of life (HRQOL). The purpose is to explore expansion of the ICF framework to incorporate personal perception to offer a more complete expression of functioning and disability. METHOD: We examine the concepts of HRQOL and personal perception, as well as how they have been linked to the ICF in the literature. Through a review of the foundations of the biopsychosocial model, we propose an enhanced version of the ICF that integrates HRQOL within the framework by expanding the personal factors component. RESULTS: Through operationalising aspects of personal perception and situating them among the personal factors, we demonstrate how HRQOL may be integrated within the ICF framework. CONCLUSION: Using several case examples, we illustrate that if personal perception is housed within the personal factors component all other components may be influenced through mechanisms of the ICFs reciprocal interactions. In doing so, HRQOL becomes part of the experience of a health condition and functioning and disability are completely described.

The emergence of multisensory systems through perceptual narrowing.

According to conventional wisdom, multisensory development is a progressive process that results in the growth and proliferation of perceptual skills. We review new findings indicating that a regressive process - perceptual narrowing - also contributes in critical ways to perceptual development. These new data reveal that young infants are able to integrate non-native faces and vocalizations, that this broad multisensory perceptual tuning is present at birth, and that this tuning narrows by the end of the first year of life, leaving infants with the ability to integrate only socio-ecologically-relevant multisensory signals. This narrowing process forces us to reconsider the traditional progressive theories of multisensory development and opens up several new evolutionary questions as well.

The neural bases of multistable perception.

Multistable perception is the spontaneous alternation between two or more perceptual states that occurs when sensory information is ambiguous. Multistable phenomena permit dissociation of neural activity related to conscious perception from that related to sensory stimulation, and therefore have been used extensively to study the neural correlates of consciousness. Here, we review recent work on the neural mechanisms underlying multistable perception and how such work has contributed to understanding the neural correlates of consciousness. Particular emphasis is put on the role of high-level brain mechanisms that are involved in actively selecting and interpreting sensory information, and their interactions with lower-level processes that are more directly concerned with the processing of sensory stimulus properties.

An assessment of stakeholder perceptions and management of noxious alien plants in Spain.

Despite biological invasions being a worldwide phenomenon causing significant ecological, economic, and human welfare impacts, there is limited understanding regarding how environmental managers perceive the problem and subsequently manage alien species. Spanish environmental managers were surveyed using questionnaires to (1) analyze the extent to which they perceive plant invasions as a problem; (2) identify the status, occurrence, and impacts of noxious alien plant species; (3) assess current effort and expenditure targeting alien plant management; and, finally, (4) identify the criteria they use to set priorities for management. In comparison to other environmental concerns, plant invasions are perceived as only moderately problematic and mechanical control is the most valued and frequently used strategy to cope with plant invasions in Spain. Based on 70 questionnaires received, 193 species are considered noxious, 109 of which have been the subject of management activities. More than 90% of species are found in at least one protected area. According to respondents, the most frequently managed species are the most widespread across administrative regions and the ones perceived as causing the highest impacts. The perception of impact seems to be independent of their invasion status, since only half of the species identified as noxious are believed to be invasive in Spain, while 43% of species thought to only be casual aliens are causing a high impact. Records of management costs are poor and the few data indicate that the total actual expenditure amounted to 50,492,437 euros in the last decade. The majority of respondents stated that management measures are insufficient to control alien plants due to limited economic resources, lack of public awareness and support, and an absence of coordination among different public administrations. Managers also expressed their concern about the fact that much scientific research is concerned with the ecology of alien plants rather than with specific cost-efficient strategies to manage alien species.

Multisensory interplay reveals crossmodal influences on 'sensory-specific' brain regions, neural responses, and judgments.

Although much traditional sensory research has studied each sensory modality in isolation, there has been a recent explosion of interest in causal interplay between different senses. Various techniques have now identified numerous multisensory convergence zones in the brain. Some convergence may arise surprisingly close to low-level sensory-specific cortex, and some direct connections may exist even between primary sensory cortices. A variety of multisensory phenomena have now been reported in which sensory-specific brain responses and perceptual judgments concerning one sense can be affected by relations with other senses. We survey recent progress in this multisensory field, foregrounding human studies against the background of invasive animal work and highlighting possible underlying mechanisms. These include rapid feedforward integration, possible thalamic influences, and/or feedback from multisensory regions to sensory-specific brain areas. Multisensory interplay is more prevalent than classic modular approaches assumed, and new methods are now available to determine the underlying circuits.

Atypical categorical perception in autism: autonomy of discrimination?

A diminished top-down influence has been proposed in autism, to account for enhanced performance in low-level perceptual tasks. Applied to perceptual categorization, this hypothesis predicts a diminished influence of category on discrimination. In order to test this hypothesis, we compared categorical perception in 16 individuals with and 16 individuals without high-functioning autism. While participants with and without autism displayed a typical classification curve, there was no facilitation of discrimination near the category boundary in the autism group. The absence of influence of categorical knowledge on discrimination suggests an increased autonomy of low-level perceptual processes in autism, in the form of a reduced top-down influence from categories toward discrimination.

Câncer Infantil: o viver, o sentir e o tratar / Childhood Cancer: the living, the feel and the treat

O câncer, além de ser uma enfermidade crônica que ameaça a vida, é uma doença que simboliza o desconhecido, o perigoso, o sofrimento, a dor e a culpa. Quando a pessoa que adoece é uma criança todas estas reações emocionais podem ser mais intensas para o pequeno paciente, os pais e irmãos. Atualmente, o câncer é considerado um problema de saúde pública e deve ser enfatizado um novo olhar no cuidado dos pacientes da oncologia pediátrica e suas famílias, considerando os aspectos bio-psicossociais da doença. Desta forma, com a presente pesquisa, pretende-se contribuir para um melhor entendimento das implicações do câncer na infância para a própria criança e para os cuidadores, além de investigar o trabalho dos médicos em dois períodos importantes do atendimento do indivíduo com câncer: o momento de revelar o diagnóstico para o paciente e sua família e as dificuldades encontradas no dia a dia que dificultam o tratamento da criança. Foram entrevistadas 12 crianças diagnosticadas com câncer, 16 cuidadores e 5 oncologistas pediátricas e respeito dos vários aspectos que envolve o câncer. Como referencial teórico foi utilizado uma abordagem qualitativa, que não se preocupa em quantificar, mas sim, em compreender e explicar as crenças, valores, atitudes e hábitos de uma sociedade. Os cuidadores/pais e crianças com câncer vivenciam um longo processo desde os sinais, sintomas e diagnósticos até o final do tratamento. Apresentam sentimentos que misturam surpresa, impotência e tristeza que vão influenciar as formas de agir e de pensar enquanto re-significam e doença. A equipe de saúde que atende à criança funciona como anteparo para todas as necessidades e ansiedades do paciente e da sua família e deve receber o treinamento e a estrutura necessária para atender bem esses indivíduos que buscam nele, além da cura, amparo e carinho neste momento difícil

Câncer Infantil: o viver, o sentir e o tratar

O câncer, além de ser uma enfermidade crônica que ameaça a vida, é uma doença que simboliza o desconhecido, o perigoso, o sofrimento, a dor e a culpa. Quando a pessoa que adoece é uma criança todas estas reações emocionais podem ser mais intensas para o pequeno paciente, os pais e irmãos. Atualmente, o câncer é considerado um problema de saúde pública e deve ser enfatizado um novo olhar no cuidado dos pacientes da oncologia pediátrica e suas famílias, considerando os aspectos bio-psicossociais da doença. Desta forma, com a presente pesquisa, pretende-se contribuir para um melhor entendimento das implicações do câncer na infância para a própria criança e para os cuidadores, além de investigar o trabalho dos médicos em dois períodos importantes do atendimento do indivíduo com câncer: o momento de revelar o diagnóstico para o paciente e sua família e as dificuldades encontradas no dia a dia que dificultam o tratamento da criança. Foram entrevistadas 12 crianças diagnosticadas com câncer, 16 cuidadores e 5 oncologistas pediátricas e respeito dos vários aspectos que envolve o câncer. Como referencial teórico foi utilizado uma abordagem qualitativa, que não se preocupa em quantificar, mas sim, em compreender e explicar as crenças, valores, atitudes e hábitos de uma sociedade. Os cuidadores/pais e crianças com câncer vivenciam um longo processo desde os sinais, sintomas e diagnósticos até o final do tratamento. Apresentam sentimentos que misturam surpresa, impotência e tristeza que vão influenciar as formas de agir e de pensar enquanto re-significam e doença. A equipe de saúde que atende à criança funciona como anteparo para todas as necessidades e ansiedades do paciente e da sua família e deve receber o treinamento e a estrutura necessária para atender bem esses indivíduos que buscam nele, além da cura, amparo e carinho neste momento difícil

Crossmodal interactions: lessons from synesthesia.

Synesthesia is a condition in which stimulation in one modality also gives rise to a perceptual experience in a second modality. In two recent studies we found that the condition is more common than previously reported; up to 5% of the population may experience at least one type of synesthesia. Although the condition has been traditionally viewed as an anomaly (e.g., breakdown in modularity), it seems that at least some of the mechanisms underlying synesthesia do reflect universal crossmodal mechanisms. We review here a number of examples of crossmodal correspondences found in both synesthetes and nonsynesthetes including pitch-lightness and vision-touch interaction, as well as cross-domain spatial-numeric interactions. Additionally, we discuss the common role of spatial attention in binding shape and color surface features (whether ordinary or synesthetic color). Consistently with behavioral and neuroimaging data showing that chromatic-graphemic (colored-letter) synesthesia is a genuine perceptual phenomenon implicating extrastriate cortex, we also present electrophysiological data showing modulation of visual evoked potentials by synesthetic color congruency.

Agrupamento de sensações somatossensoriais com estimulação de corrente senoidal / Clustering of somatosensory sensations during sinusoidal current stimulation

Fibras finas (FF) aferentes primárias mediam a percepção de sensações relacionadas à dor e à temperatura, e as fibras grossas (FG) ao tato. O objetivo deste trabalho é avaliar percepções relacionadas às FF (picada, pontada, agulhada, queimação) e às FG (aperto, pressão, vibração e movimento)evocadas por estimulação elétrica senoidal com 5 Hz e 2 kHz, respectivamente. O dedo indicador da mão esquerda de 150 voluntários, sem doença neurológica conhecida e medicação, foram estimulados nessas frequências com intensidades decorrente igual ao limiar de sensibilidade (LS) e 1,5 vezes LS.O voluntário escolheu das 8 palavras, 3 que mais se aproximavam à sua percepção do estímulo. Outro grupo de 60 voluntários foi utilizado como controle, sendo que as 3 palavras foram escolhidas sem nenhuma estimulação. O valor de “1” foi atribuído à palavra escolhida, e “0” à não selecionada. As sensações foram agrupadas utilizando-se o vizinho mais próximo (single linkage) e a correlação entre variáveis binárias(tetrachloric correlation). Os resultados indicam uma tendência a sensações de fibras grossas sem estimulação, sendo que 5 Hz evoca principalmente as sensações de fibras finas e 2 kHz as de fibras grossas. A exceção foi a sensação de FF queimação, a qual se mostrou inconsistente em ambos os grupos.

Thin fibers mediate the perception related to temperature and painful sensations, and thick fibers the perception related to touch. This work tries to evaluate the perceptions related to thin (prick, pang, twinge and burning) and thick fibers (squeeze, pressure, movement and vibration) evoked by sinusoidal stimulation with 5 Hz and2 kHz, respectively. The left index fingers of 150 volunteers, without known neurological problems or under medication, were stimulatedat these frequencies and at current intensities equal to the sensory threshold and 1.5 times the sensory threshold. The volunteers chose three words out of eight that better represented the sensation felt during the stimulus. Another group of 60 volunteers was used as control, for which the three words were chosen with no stimulation. The value “1” was attributed to each sensation chosen and “0” forthe others. The sensations were clustered using the single linkage nearest neighbor method and the tetrachloric correlation between binary variables. The results showed a tendency to thick fiber sensations with 2 kHz or no stimulation, while 5 Hz evoked thin fiber sensations. The exception was the FF sensation of burning, which did not fit into any group.

Attention and memory evaluation across the life span: heterogeneous effects of age and education.

The developmental sequences of attention and memory were studied by utilizing normative data derived from the neuropsychological battery named NEUROPSI ATTENTION AND MEMORY. A sample of 521 Spanish-speaking individuals, aged 6 to 85 years, participated in this study. In the adult sample, educational level ranged from 0 to 22 years of education. Data from subtests measuring orientation, attention and concentration, executive functions, working memory, immediate and delayed verbal memory, and immediate and delayed visual memory were included. The factor structure of the analyzed battery is presented. The effects of age and education on this structure were analyzed. Results suggested that although attention and memory are related, their developmental sequences are separated from one another. During childhood, the development of selective and sustained attention, attentional-working memory, and executive functions showed a fast improvement in performance. Development of verbal memory and place and person orientation showed a slower increment in scores. In the adult sample it was found that factors related to memory are sensitive to age, whereas those related to attention and executive functions are sensitive to education. The consideration of both the developmental sequence, as well as differential effects of education, can improve the sensitivity and specificity of neuropsychological measures, allowing early diagnosis of cognitive dysfunction and implementation of adequate rehabilitation programs.

Functional specialization within the medial frontal gyrus for perceptual go/no-go decisions based on "what," "when," and "where" related information: an fMRI study.

Cortical systems engaged during executive and volitional functions receive and integrate input from multiple systems. However, these integration processes are not well understood. In particular, it is not known whether these input pathways converge or remain segregated at the executive levels of cortical information processing. If unilateral information streams are conserved within structures that serve high-level executive functions, then the functional organization within these structures would predictably be similarly organized. If, however, unilateral input information streams are integrated within executive-related structures, then activity patterns will not necessarily reflect lower organizations. In this study, subjects were imaged during the performance of a "perceptual go/no-go" task for which instructions were based on spatial ("where"), temporal ("when"), or object ("what") stimulus features known to engage unilateral processing streams, and the expected hemispheric biases were observed for early processing areas. For example, activity within the inferior and middle occipital gyri, and the middle temporal gyrus, during the what and when tasks, was biased toward the left hemisphere, and toward the right hemisphere during the "where" task. We discover a similar lateralization within the medial frontal gyrus, a region associated with high-level executive functions and decision-related processes. This lateralization was observed regardless of whether the response was executed or imagined, and was demonstrated in multiple sensory modalities. Although active during the go/no-go task, the cingulate gyrus did not show a similar lateralization. These findings further differentiate the organizations and functions of the medial frontal and cingulate executive regions, and suggest that the executive mechanisms operative within the medial frontal gyrus preserve fundamental aspects of input processing streams.