AcEXPA1, an α-expansin gene, participates in the aluminum tolerance of carpetgrass (Axonopus compressus) through root growth regulation.

KEY MESSAGE: AcEXPA1, an aluminum (Al)-inducible expansin gene, is demonstrated to be involved in carpetgrass (Axonopus compressus) root elongation under Al toxicity through analyzing composite carpetgrass plants overexpressing AcEXPA1. Aluminum (Al) toxicity is a major mineral toxicity that limits plant productivity in acidic soils by inhibiting root growth. Carpetgrass (Axonopus compressus), a dominant warm-season turfgrass widely grown in acidic tropical soils, exhibits superior adaptability to Al toxicity. However, the mechanisms underlying its Al tolerance are largely unclear, and knowledge of the functional genes involved in Al detoxification in this turfgrass is limited. In this study, phenotypic variation in Al tolerance, as indicated by relative root elongation, was observed among seventeen carpetgrass genotypes. Al-responsive genes related to cell wall modification were identified in the roots of the Al-tolerant genotype 'A58' via transcriptome analysis. Among them, a gene encoding α-expansin was cloned and designated AcEXPA1 for functional characterization. Observed Al dose effects and temporal responses revealed that Al induced AcEXPA1 expression in carpetgrass roots. Subsequently, an efficient and convenient Agrobacterium rhizogenes-mediated transformation method was established to generate composite carpetgrass plants with transgenic hairy roots for investigating AcEXPA1 involvement in carpetgrass root growth under Al toxicity. AcEXPA1 was successfully overexpressed in the transgenic hairy roots, and AcEXPA1 overexpression enhanced Al tolerance in composite carpetgrass plants through a decrease in Al-induced root growth inhibition. Taken together, these findings suggest that AcEXPA1 contributes to Al tolerance in carpetgrass via root growth regulation.

Target gene overexpression and enhanced metabolism confer resistance to nicosulfuron in Eriochloa villosa (Thunb.).

Eriochloa villosa (Thunb.) Kunth is a troublesome weed widely distributed in maize (Zea mays L.) fields in Northeast China. Many populations of E. villosa have evolved resistance to nicosulfuron herbicides, which inhibit acetolactate synthase (ALS). The objectives of this research were to confirm that E. villosa is resistant to nicosulfuron and to investigate the basis of nicosulfuron resistance. Whole-plant dose-response studies revealed that the R population had not developed a high level of cross-resistance and exhibited greater resistant (25.62-fold) to nicosulfuron than that of the S population and had not yet developed a high level of cross-resistance. An in vitro ALS activity assay demonstrated that the I50 of nicosulfuron was 6.87-fold greater in the R population than the S population. However, based on ALS gene sequencing, the target ALS gene in the R population did not contain mutations. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) revealed that ALS gene expression between the R and S populations was significantly different after nicosulfuron application, but no differences were observed in the gene copy number. After the cytochrome P450 inhibitor malathion or the GST inhibitor NBD-Cl was applied, the resistant E. villosa population exhibited increased sensitivity to nicosulfuron. Based on the activities of GSTs and P450s, the activities of the R population were greater than those of the S population after nicosulfuron application. This is the first report that the resistance of E. villosa to ALS inhibitors results from increased target gene expression and increased metabolism. These findings provide a theoretical foundation for the effective control of herbicide-resistant E. villosa.

Two Cytochrome P450s, CYP709B1 and CYP704C1, Play Essential Roles in Metabolism-Based Multiple Herbicide Resistance in American Sloughgrass (Beckmannia syzigachne (Steud.) Fernald).

This study confirmed a field population of American sloughgrass (Beckmannia syzigachne (Steud.) Fernald) that developed simultaneously high levels of resistance (resistance index >10) to three divergent modes of action herbicides: fenoxaprop-P-ethyl, mesosulfuron-methyl, and isoproturon. The resistance phenotype observed in this population was not attributed to target-site alterations; rather, the resistant plants exhibited a significant increase in the activity of cytochrome P450s (P450s) and enhanced metabolism rates for all three herbicides. RNA sequencing revealed significant upregulation of two P450s, CYP709B1 and CYP704C1, in the resistant plants both before and after herbicide treatments. Molecular docking predicted that the homology models of these P450s should exhibit a binding affinity for a range of herbicides. The heterologous expression of the identified P450s in yeast cells indicated improved growth in the presence of all three of the aforementioned herbicides. Collectively, the increased expression of CYP709B1 and CYP704C1 likely contributed to the P450s-mediated enhanced metabolism, thereby conferring multiple herbicide resistance in B. syzigachne.

Metabolism-Based Nontarget-Site Mechanism Is the Main Cause of a Four-Way Resistance in Shortawn Foxtail (Alopecurus aequalis Sobol.).

Alopecurus aequalis Sobol. is a predominant grass weed in Chinese winter wheat fields, posing a substantial threat to crop production owing to its escalating herbicide resistance. This study documented the initial instance of an A. aequalis population (AHFT-3) manifesting resistance to multiple herbicides targeting four distinct sites: acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACCase), acetolactate synthase, photosystem II, and 1-deoxy-d-xylulose-5-phosphate synthase. AHFT-3 carried an Asp-to-Gly mutation at codon 2078 of ACCase, with no mutations in the remaining three herbicide target genes, and exhibited no overexpression of any target gene. Compared with the susceptible population AHFY-3, AHFT-3 metabolized mesosulfuron-methyl, isoproturon, and bixlozone faster. The inhibition and comparison of herbicide-detoxifying enzyme activities indicated the participation of cytochrome P450s in the resistance to all four herbicides, with glutathione S-transferases specifically linked to mesosulfuron-methyl. Three CYP72As and a Tau class glutathione S-transferase, markedly upregulated in resistant plants, potentially played pivotal roles in the multiple-herbicide-resistance phenotype.

Photosynthetic variation and detoxification strategies based on cadmium uptake, non-protein thiols, and secondary metabolites in Miscanthus sacchariflorus under cadmium exposure.

Miscanthus sacchariflorus is previously demonstrated to be a potential candidate for remediation of cadmium (Cd) pollution. To explore its resistance strategy to Cd, a hydroponic experiment was conducted to determine the variations of photosynthetic activity in leaves and physiological response in roots of this plant. Results showed that the root of M. sacchariflorus was the primary location for Cd accumulation. The bioconcentration factor in the roots and rhizomes was >1, and the translocation factor from underground to aboveground was <1. Throughout the experimental period, treatment with 0.06 mM Cd2+ did not significantly alter the contents of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, or carotenoid. By contrast, treatment with 0.15 and 0.30 mM Cd2+ decreased the contents of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoid; caused the deformation of the chlorophyll fluorescence transient curve; reduced the photochemical efficiency of photosystem II; and increased the contents of non-protein thiols, total flavone, and total phenol. These results indicate that M. sacchariflorus has good adaptability to 0.06 mM Cd2+. Moreover, the accumulation of the non-protein thiols, total flavone, and total phenol in roots may promote the chelation of Cd2+, thus alleviating Cd toxicity. This study provides theoretical support for using M. sacchariflorus to remediate Cd-polluted wetlands.

Iron nanoparticles in combination with other conventional Fe sources remediate mercury toxicity-affected plants and soils by nutrient accumulation in bamboo species.

The issue of mercury (Hg) toxicity has recently been identified as a significant environmental concern, with the potential to impede plant growth in forested and agricultural areas. Conversely, recent reports have indicated that Fe, may play a role in alleviating HM toxicity in plants. Therefore, this study's objective is to examine the potential of iron nanoparticles (Fe NPs) and various sources of Fe, particularly iron sulfate (Fe SO4 or Fe S) and iron-ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid (Fe - EDTA or Fe C), either individually or in combination, to mitigate the toxic effects of Hg on Pleioblastus pygmaeus. Involved mechanisms in the reduction of Hg toxicity in one-year bamboo species by Fe NPs, and by various Fe sources were introduced by a controlled greenhouse experiment. While 80 mg/L Hg significantly reduced plant growth and biomass (shoot dry weight (36%), root dry weight (31%), and shoot length (31%) and plant tolerance (34%) in comparison with control treatments, 60 mg/L Fe NPs and conventional sources of Fe increased proline accumulation (32%), antioxidant metabolism (21%), polyamines (114%), photosynthetic pigments (59%), as well as root dry weight (25%), and shoot dry weight (22%), and shoot length (22%). Fe NPs, Fe S, and Fe C in plant systems substantially enhanced tolerance to Hg toxicity (23%). This improvement was attributed to increased leaf-relative water content (39%), enhanced nutrient availability (50%), improved antioxidant capacity (34%), and reduced Hg translocation (6%) and accumulation (31%) in plant organs. Applying Fe NPs alone or in conjunction with a mixture of Fe C and Fe S can most efficiently improve bamboo plants' tolerance to Hg toxicity. The highest efficiency in increasing biochemical and physiological indexes under Hg, was related to the treatments of Fe NPs as well as Fe NPs + FeS + FeC. Thus, Fe NPs and other Fe sources might be effective options to remove toxicity from plants and soil. The future perspective may help establish mechanisms to regulate environmental toxicity and human health progressions.

Physiological and transcriptomic analyses reveal the cadmium tolerance mechanism of Miscanthus lutarioriparia.

Miscanthus lutarioriparia is a promising energy crop that is used for abandoned mine soil phytoremediation because of its high biomass yield and strong tolerance to heavy metals. However, the biological mechanism of heavy metal resistance is limited, especially for applications in the soil restoration of mining areas. Here, through the investigation of soil cadmium(Cd) in different mining areas and soil potted under Cd stress, the adsorption capacity of Miscanthus lutarioriparia was analyzed. The physiological and transcriptional effects of Cd stress on M. lutarioriparia leaves and roots under hydroponic conditions were analyzed. The results showed that M. lutarioriparia could reduce the Cd content in mining soil by 29.82%. Moreover, different Cd varieties have different Cd adsorption capacities in soils with higher Cd concentration. The highest cadmium concentrations in the aboveground and belowground parts of the plants were 185.65 mg/kg and 186.8 mg/kg, respectively. The total chlorophyll content, superoxide dismutase and catalase activities all showed a trend of increasing first and then decreasing. In total, 24,372 differentially expressed genes were obtained, including 7735 unique to leaves, 7725 unique to roots, and 8912 unique to leaves and roots, which showed differences in gene expression between leaves and roots. These genes were predominantly involved in plant hormone signal transduction, glutathione metabolism, flavonoid biosynthesis, ABC transporters, photosynthesis and the metal ion transport pathway. In addition, the number of upregulated genes was greater than the number of downregulated genes at different stress intervals, which indicated that M. lutarioriparia adapted to Cd stress mainly through positive regulation. These results lay a solid foundation for breeding excellent Cd resistant M. lutarioriparia and other plants. The results also have an important theoretical significance for further understanding the detoxification mechanism of Cd stress and the remediation of heavy metal pollution in mining soil.

Reponses of morphological and biochemical traits of bamboo trees under elevated atmospheric O3 enrichment.

Dwarf bamboo (Indocalamus decorus) is an O3-tolerant plant species. To identify the possible mechanism and response of leaf morphological, antioxidant, and anatomical characteristics to elevated atmospheric O3 (EO3) concentrations, we exposed three-year-old I. decorus seedlings to three O3 levels (low O3-LO: ambient air; medium O3-MO: Ambient air+70 ppb high O3-HO: Ambient air+140 ppb O3) over a growing season using open-top chambers. Leaf shape and stomatal characteristics, and leaf microscopic structure of I. decorus were examined. The results indicated that 1) the stomata O3 flux (Fst) of HO decreased more rapidly under EO3 as the exposure time increased. The foliar O3 injury of HO and MO occurred when AOT40 was 26.62 ppm h and 33.20 ppm h, respectively, 2) under EO3, leaf number, leaf mass per area, leaf area, and stomata length/width all decreased, while leaf thickness, stomatal density, width, and area increased compared to the control, 3) MDA and total soluble protein contents all showed significantly increase under HO (36.57% and 32.77%) and MO(31.91% and 19.52%) while proline contents only increased under HO(33.27%). 4) MO and HO increased bulliform cells numbers in the leaves by 6.28% and 23.01%, respectively. HO reduced the transverse area of bulliform cells by 13.73%, while MO treatments had no effect, and 5) the number of fusoid cells interspace, the transverse area of fusoid cells interspace, and mesophyll thickness of HO significantly increased by 11.16%, 28.58%, and 13.42%, respectively. In conclusion, I. decorus exhibits strong O3 tolerance characteristics, which stem from adaptions in the leaf's morphological, structural, antioxidant, and anatomical features. One critical attribute was the enlargement of the bulliform cell transverse area and the transverse area of fusoid cells interspace that drove this resistance to O3. Local bamboo species with high resistance to O3 pollution thus need to be promoted for sustained productivity and ecosystem services in areas with high O3 pollution.

Effects of increasing atmospheric CO2 on leaf water δ18O values are small and are attenuated in grasses and amplified in dicotyledonous herbs and legumes when transferred to cellulose δ18O values.

The oxygen isotope composition of cellulose (δ18O values) has been suggested to contain information on stomatal conductance (gs) responses to rising pCO2. The extent by which pCO2 affects leaf water and cellulose δ18O values (δ18OLW and δ18OC) and the isotope processes that determine pCO2 effects on δ18OLW and δ18OC are, however, unknown. We tested the effects of pCO2 on gs, δ18OLW and δ18OC in a glasshouse experiment, where six plant species were grown under pCO2 ranging from 200 to 500 ppm. Increasing pCO2 caused a decline in gs and an increase in δ18OLW, as expected. Importantly, the effects of pCO2 on gs and δ18OLW were small and pCO2 effects on δ18OLW were not directly transferred to δ18OC but were attenuated in grasses and amplified in dicotyledonous herbs and legumes. This is likely because of functional group-specific pCO2 effects on the model parameter pxpex. Our study highlights important uncertainties when using δ18OC as a proxy for gs. Specifically, pCO2-triggered gs effects on δ18OLW and δ18OC are possibly too small to be detected in natural settings and a pCO2 effect on pxpex may render the commonly assumed negative linkage between δ18OC and gs to be incorrect, potentially confounding δ18OC based gs reconstructions.

Target-site and non-target-site resistance mechanisms confer mesosulfuron-methyl resistance in Alopecurus aequalis.

BACKGROUND: Shortawn foxtail (Alopecurus aequalis Sobol.) is a noxious weed in China. The resistance of A. aequalis developed rapidly due to the long-term application of acetolactate synthase (ALS)-inhibiting herbicides. Here, a suspected mesosulfuron-methyl-resistant A. aequalis population, Aa-R, was collected from a wheat field in China. RESULTS: A dose‒response test showed that the Aa-R population has evolved a high level of resistance to mesosulfuron-methyl, and its growth was suppressed by imazamox, pyroxsulam and bispyribac-sodium. ALS gene sequence analysis revealed that a known resistance-related mutation (Pro-197-Thr) was present in the Aa-R population. Moreover, ALS gene overexpression was detected in the Aa-R population. The mesosulfuron-methyl resistance could be reversed by cytochrome P450 monooxygenase (CYP450) and glutathione S-transferase (GST) inhibitors. In addition, enhanced metabolism of mesosulfuron-methyl was detected in the Aa-R population compared with the susceptible population. NADPH-cytochrome P450 reductase and GST activities were strongly inducible in the Aa-R population. One CYP450 gene, CYP74A2, and one GST gene, GST4, were constitutively upregulated in the Aa-R population. Molecular docking results showed the binding affinity of CYP74A2 and GST4 for the tested ALS-inhibiting herbicides, respectively. CONCLUSION: This study confirmed that target-site resistance and non-target-site resistance involving CYP450 and GST were the main mechanisms involved in resistance in the mesosulfuron-methyl-resistant A. aequalis population.

The role of interspecific variability and herbicide pre-adaptation in the cinmethylin response of Alopecurus myosuroides.

BACKGROUND: Cinmethylin is an inhibitor of plant fatty acid biosynthesis, with in-plant activity caused by its binding to fatty acid thioesterases (FATs). The recent registration of cinmethylin for pre-emergence herbicidal use in the UK represents a new mode-of-action (MOA) for control of the grassweed blackgrass (Alopecurus myosuroides). To date there is little published information on the extent of blackgrass' inter-population variability in sensitivity to cinmethylin, nor on any potential effect of existing non-target-site resistance (NTSR) mechanisms on cinmethylin efficacy. RESULTS: Here we present a study of variability in cinmethylin sensitivity amongst 97 UK blackgrass populations. We demonstrate that under controlled conditions, a UK field-rate dose of 500 g ha-1 provides effective control of the tested populations. Nevertheless, we reveal significant inter-population variability at doses below this rate, with populations previously characterised as strongly NTSR displaying the lowest sensitivity to cinmethylin. Assessment of paired resistant 'R' and sensitive 'S' lines from standardised genetic backgrounds confirms that selection for NTSR to the acetyl-CoA-carboxylase inhibitor fenoxaprop, and the microtubule assembly inhibitor pendimethalin, simultaneously results in reduced sensitivity to cinmethylin at doses below 500 g ha-1. Whilst we find no resistance to the field-rate dose, we reveal that cinmethylin sensitivity can be further reduced through experimental selection with cinmethylin. CONCLUSION: Cinmethylin therefore represents a much-needed further MOA for blackgrass control, but needs to be carefully managed within a resistance monitoring and integrated weed management (IWM) framework to maximise the effective longevity of this compound. © 2024 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

RNA and protein biomarkers for detecting enhanced metabolic resistance to herbicides mesosulfuron-methyl and fenoxaprop-ethyl in black-grass (Alopecurus myosuroides).

BACKGROUND: The evolution of non-target site resistance (NTSR) to herbicides leads to a significant reduction in herbicide control of agricultural weed species. Detecting NTSR in weed populations prior to herbicide treatment would provide valuable information for effective weed control. While not all NTSR mechanisms have been fully identified, enhanced metabolic resistance (EMR) is one of the better studied, conferring tolerance through increased herbicide detoxification. Confirming EMR towards specific herbicides conventionally involves detecting metabolites of the active herbicide molecule in planta, but this approach is time-consuming and requires access to well-equipped laboratories. RESULTS: In this study, we explored the potential of using molecular biomarkers to detect EMR before herbicide treatment in black-grass (Alopecurus myosuroides). We tested the reliability of selected biomarkers to predict EMR and survival after herbicide treatments in both reference and 27 field-derived black-grass populations collected from sites across the UK. The combined analysis of the constitutive expression of biomarkers and metabolism studies confirmed three proteins, namely, AmGSTF1, AmGSTU2 and AmOPR1, as differential biomarkers of EMR toward the herbicides fenoxaprop-ethyl and mesosulfuron in black-grass. CONCLUSION: Our findings demonstrate that there is potential to use molecular biomarkers to detect EMR toward specific herbicides in black-grass without reference to metabolism analysis. However, biomarker development must include testing at both transcript and protein levels in order to be reliable indicators of resistance. This work is a first step towards more robust resistance biomarker development, which could be expanded into other herbicide chemistries for on-farm testing and monitoring EMR in uncharacterised black-grass populations. © 2024 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Nitric Oxide Extends the Postharvest Life of Water Bamboo Shoots Partly by Maintaining Mitochondrial Structure and Energy Metabolism.

Harvested water bamboo shoots can be stored for only a few days before they lose weight and become soft. Nitrogen oxide (NO) and modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) have previously been used to prolong horticultural crop storage. In the present study, we analyzed the joint effect of these two methods on extending the postharvest quality of water bamboo shoots. Water bamboo shoots were treated with (1) 30 µL L-1 NO, (2) MAP, and (3) a combination of NO and MAP. The NO treatment delayed the softness and weight loss through maintaining the integrity of the mitochondrial ultrastructure and enhancing the ATP level by activating the expressions and activities of succinic dehydrogenase, malic acid dehydrogenase, and cytochrome oxidase. MAP improved the effect of NO on the mitochondrial energy metabolism. These results indicate that NO and MAP treatments are effective at suppressing the quality deterioration of water bamboo shoots, MAP improves the effect of NO in extending postharvest life, and NO may be the main effective factor in the combination of NO and MAP.

Nutritional quality, nutrient uptake and biomass production of Pennisetum purpureum cv. King grass.

The research was conducted to determine the effects of cutting interval and fertilization on the nutritional quality, nutrient uptake, and biomass production of King grass. The experimental design was a randomized complete block, using 4 blocks and 8 treatments per block; treatments consisted of 4 ages of cutting (30, 45, 60, and 90 days), with fertilization and without fertilization. The results showed increases of up to 72,000 kg ha-1 year-1 of dry matter (DM) when fertilization was implemented. There was a significant reduction in with an increase in the cutting days (12.70-6.53% protein). Fiber increased (48.79-72.99% NDF) when fertilization treatments were included and cutting days increased. The elements that were included in fertilization (N, P, K) showed a higher foliar content and also presented a reduction in foliar content with growth of the plant. Treatments with fertilization showed a nutrient uptake increase for all the elements up to 60 days, where a reduction in uptake capacity was observed. King grass is a plant with a high nutrient uptake capacity and, therefore, with high biomass and nutrient production. This is an advantage since it can be used in multiple applications, such as animal feed, biofuel production, and as a substrate for biodigestion, among others.

Cascading effects of moth outbreaks on subarctic soil food webs.

The increasing severity and frequency of natural disturbances requires a better understanding of their effects on all compartments of biodiversity. In Northern Fennoscandia, recent large-scale moth outbreaks have led to an abrupt change in plant communities from birch forests dominated by dwarf shrubs to grass-dominated systems. However, the indirect effects on the belowground compartment remained unclear. Here, we combined eDNA surveys of multiple trophic groups with network analyses to demonstrate that moth defoliation has far-reaching consequences on soil food webs. Following this disturbance, diversity and relative abundance of certain trophic groups declined (e.g., ectomycorrhizal fungi), while many others expanded (e.g., bacterivores and omnivores) making soil food webs more diverse and structurally different. Overall, the direct and indirect consequences of moth outbreaks increased belowground diversity at different trophic levels. Our results highlight that a holistic view of ecosystems improves our understanding of cascading effects of major disturbances on soil food webs.

Differential germination characteristics of glyphosate-resistant and glyphosate-susceptible Chloris virgata populations under different temperature and moisture stress regimes.

Thorough knowledge of the germination behavior of weed species could aid in the development of effective weed control practices, especially when glyphosate resistance is involved. A study was conducted using two glyphosate-resistant (GR) (SGW2 and CP2) and two glyphosate-susceptible (GS) (Ch and SGM2) populations of Chloris virgata, an emerging and troublesome weed species of Australian farming systems, to evaluate their germination response to different alternating temperature (15/5, 25/15 and 35/25°C with 12 h/12 h light/dark photoperiod) and moisture stress regimes (0, -0.1, -0.2, -0.4, -0.8 and -1.6 MPa). These temperature regimes represent temperatures occurring throughout the year in the eastern grain region of Australia. Seeds germinated in all the temperature regimes with no clear indication of optimum thermal conditions for the GR and GS populations. All populations exhibited considerable germination at the lowest alternating temperature regime 15/5°C (61%, 87%, 49%, and 47% for Ch, SGM2, SGW2, and CP2, respectively), demonstrating the ability of C. virgata to germinate in winter months despite being a summer annual. Seed germination of all populations was inhibited at -0.8 and -1.6 MPa osmotic potential at two alternating temperature regimes (15/5 and 35/25°C); however, some seeds germinated at 25/15°C at -0.8 MPa osmotic potential, indicating the ability of C. virgata to germinate in arid regions and drought conditions. Three biological parameters (T10: incubation period required to reach 10% germination; T50: incubation period required to reach 50% germination; and T90: incubation period required to reach 90% germination) suggested late water imbibition with increasing moisture stress levels. The GR population SGW2 exhibited a distinctive pattern in T10, T50, and T90, possessing delayed germination behaviour and thus demonstrating an escape mechanism against pre-plating weed management practices. Knowledge gained from this study will help in developing site-specific and multi-tactic weed control protocols.

Melatonin influences the early growth stage in Zoysia japonica Steud. by regulating plant oxidation and genes of hormones.

Zoysia japonica is a commonly used turfgrass species around the world. Seed germination is a crucial stage in the plant life cycle and is particularly important for turf establishment and management. Experiments have confirmed that melatonin can be a potential regulator signal in seeds. To determine the effect of exogenous melatonin administration and explore the its potential in regulating seed growth, we studied the concentrations of several hormones and performed a transcriptome analysis of zoysia seeds after the application of melatonin. The total antioxidant capacity determination results showed that melatonin treatment could significantly improve the antioxidant capacity of zoysia seeds. The transcriptome analysis indicated that several of the regulatory pathways were involved in antioxidant activity and hormone activity. The hormones concentrations determination results showed that melatonin treatment contributed to decreased levels of cytokinin, abscisic acid and gibberellin in seeds, but had no significant effect on the secretion of auxin in early stages. Melatonin is able to affect the expression of IAA (indoleacetic acid) response genes. In addition, melatonin influences the other hormones by its synergy with other hormones. Transcriptome research in zoysia is helpful for understanding the regulation of melatonin and mechanisms underlying melatonin-mediated developmental processes in zoysia seeds.

Encapsulation of Synthesized Plant Growth Regulator Based on Copper(II) Complex in Chitosan/Alginate Microcapsules.

A new copper complex, trans-diaqua-trans-bis [1-hydroxy-1,2-di (methoxycarbonyl) ethenato] copper (abbreviation Cu(II) complex), was synthesized and its plant growth regulation properties were investigated. The results show a sharp dependence of growth regulation activity of the Cu(II) complex on the type of culture and its concentration. New plant growth regulator accelerated the development of the corn root system (the increase in both length and weight) but showed a smaller effect on the development of the wheat and barley root systems. Stimulation of corn growth decreased with increasing Cu(II) complex concentration from 0.0001% to 0.01% (inhibition at high concentrations-0.01%). The development of corn stems was also accelerated but to a lesser extent. Chitosan-coated calcium alginate microcapsules suitable for delivery of Cu(II) complex to plants were prepared and characterized. Analysis of the FTIR spectrum showed that complex molecular interactions between functional groups of microcapsule constituents include mainly electrostatic interactions and hydrogen bonds. Microcapsules surface exhibits a soft granular surface structure with substructures consisting of abundant smaller particles with reduced surface roughness. Release profile analysis showed Fickian diffusion is the rate-controlling mechanism of Cu(II) complex releasing. The obtained results give new insights into the complexity of the interaction between the Cu(II) complex and microcapsule formulation constituents, which can be of great help in accelerating product development for the application in agriculture.

Growth regulation of bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon) and zoysiagrass (Zoysia japonica) with glyphosate.

Glyphosate can generate positive effects on turfgrass maintenance as a form of growth control by decreasing the expenses associated with mowing. However, there is little information about the effects of this herbicide on turfgrasses. This study aimed to evaluate the response of bermudagrass and zoysiagrass to the herbicide glyphosate as a growth regulator. Two studies were performed in a greenhouse and repeated at different times. The treatments involved application of glyphosate at 10 different rates (0, 5.625, 11.25, 22.5, 45, 90, 180, 360, 720, and 1.440 g ae ha-1) with four replicates. Evaluations of green cover by digital analysis, injury, and plant height were performed at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days after application, and shoot dry matter of clippings was determined for the last evaluation period. Bermudagrass and zoysiagrass presented variedtolerance to glyphosate toxicity. Overall, the digital analysis showed that green content was negatively influenced by the increase in visual injury caused by glyphosate application. Moreover, increasing the glyphosate rate decreased plant height and shoot dry matter in both turfgrasses. Glyphosate application rates up to 45 g ae ha-1 for bermudagrass and 90 g ae ha-1 for zoysiagrass decreased plant growth without affecting the factors analyzed in this study.