Inhibition of MFN1 restores tamoxifen-induced apoptosis in resistant cells by disrupting aberrant mitochondrial fusion dynamics.

Tamoxifen (TAM) resistance presents a major clinical obstacle in the management of estrogen-sensitive breast cancer, highlighting the need to understand the underlying mechanisms and potential therapeutic approaches. We showed that dysregulated mitochondrial dynamics were involved in TAM resistance by protecting against mitochondrial apoptosis. The dysregulated mitochondrial dynamics were associated with increased mitochondrial fusion and decreased fission, thus preventing the release of mitochondrial cytochrome c to the cytoplasm following TAM treatment. Dynamin-related GTPase protein mitofusin 1 (MFN1), which promotes fusion, was upregulated in TAM-resistant cells, and high MFN1 expression indicated a poor prognosis in TAM-treated patients. Mitochondrial translocation of MFN1 and interaction between MFN1 and mitofusin 2 (MFN2) were enhanced to promote mitochondrial outer membrane fusion. The interaction of MFN1 and cristae-shaping protein optic atrophy 1 (OPA1) and OPA1 oligomerization were reduced due to augmented OPA1 proteolytic cleavage, and their apoptosis-promoting function was reduced due to cristae remodeling. Furthermore, the interaction of MFN1 and BAK were increased, which restrained BAK activation following TAM treatment. Knockdown or pharmacological inhibition of MFN1 blocked mitochondrial fusion, restored BAK oligomerization and cytochrome c release, and amplified activation of caspase-3/9, thus sensitizing resistant cells to apoptosis and facilitating the therapeutic effects of TAM both in vivo and in vitro. Conversely, overexpression of MFN1 alleviated TAM-induced mitochondrial apoptosis and promoted TAM resistance in sensitive cells. These results revealed that dysregulated mitochondrial dynamics contributes to the development of TAM resistance, suggesting that targeting MFN1-mediated mitochondrial fusion is a promising strategy to circumvent TAM resistance.

Generation of two human induced pluripotent stem cell lines with BAX and BAK1 double knock-out using CRISPR/Cas9.

Bcl-2-associated X protein (BAX) and Blc-2 homologous antagonist killer 1 (BAK) are two pro-apoptotic members of BCL2 family. Here, two BAX/BAK double knock-out human induced pluripotent stem cell lines (iPSC) we generated using CRISPR-Cas9 to generate apoptosis incompetent cell lines. The resulting cell lines were karyotypically normal, had typical morphology and expressed typical markers for the undifferentiated state.

Endogenous BAX and BAK form mosaic rings of variable size and composition on apoptotic mitochondria.

One hallmark of apoptosis is the oligomerization of BAX and BAK to form a pore in the mitochondrial outer membrane, which mediates the release of pro-apoptotic intermembrane space proteins into the cytosol. Cells overexpressing BAX or BAK fusion proteins are a powerful model system to study the dynamics and localization of these proteins in cells. However, it is unclear whether overexpressed BAX and BAK form the same ultrastructural assemblies following the same spatiotemporal hierarchy as endogenously expressed proteins. Combining live- and fixed-cell STED super-resolution microscopy, we show that overexpression of BAK results in novel BAK structures, which are virtually absent in non-overexpressing apoptotic cells. We further demonstrate that in wild type cells, BAK is recruited to apoptotic pores before BAX. Both proteins together form unordered, mosaic rings on apoptotic mitochondria in immortalized cell culture models as well as in human primary cells. In BAX- or BAK- single-knockout cells, the remaining protein is able to form rings independently. The heterogeneous nature of these rings in both wild type as well as single-knockout cells corroborates the toroidal apoptotic pore model.

Dysregulation of MTFR2, ATP5IF1 and BAK1 in Sertoli cells relates to idiopathic non-obstructive azoospermia via inhibiting mitochondrial fission and inducing mitochondrial dysfunction†.

Non-obstructive azoospermia affects more than 10% of infertile men with over 70% patients are idiopathic with uncharacterized molecular mechanisms, which is referred as idiopathic non-obstructive azoospermia. In this study, we checked the morphology of Sertoli cell mitochondria in testis biopsies from patients with idiopathic non-obstructive azoospermia and patients with obstructive azoospermia who have normal spermiogenesis. The expression of 104 genes controlling mitochondria fission and fusion were analyzed in three gene expression datasets including a total of 60 patients with non-obstructive azoospermia. The levels of 7 candidate genes were detected in testis biopsies from 38 patients with idiopathic non-obstructive azoospermia and 24 patients with obstructive azoospermia who have normal spermatogenesis by RT-qPCR. Cell viability, apoptosis, mitochondria membrane potential, adenosine triphosphate production, oxygen consumption, and mitochondria morphology were examined in primary human Sertoli cells. Mouse spermatogonial stem cells were used to detect the cell supporting capacity of Sertoli cells. We observed that patients with idiopathic non-obstructive azoospermia had elongated mitochondria. MTFR2 and ATP5IF1 were downregulated, whereas BAK1 was upregulated in idiopathic non-obstructive azoospermia testis and Sertoli cells. Sertoli cells from patients with idiopathic non-obstructive azoospermia had reduced viability, mitochondria membrane potential, adenosine triphosphate production, oxygen consumption rate, glycolysis and increased apoptosis. Knockdown MTFR2 in Sertoli cells increased the mitochondria size. Knockdown ATP5IF1 did not change mitochondrial morphology but increased adenosine triphosphate hydrolysis. Overexpression of BAK1 reduced membrane potential and upregulated cell apoptosis. The dysregulation of all these three genes contributed to the dysfunction of Sertoli cells, which provides a clue for idiopathic non-obstructive azoospermia treatment.

Cell-specific modulation of mitochondrial respiration and metabolism by the pro-apoptotic Bcl-2 family members Bax and Bak.

Proteins from the Bcl-2 family play an essential role in the regulation of apoptosis. However, they also possess cell death-unrelated activities that are less well understood. This prompted us to study apoptosis-unrelated activities of the Bax and Bak, pro-apoptotic members of the Bcl-2 family. We prepared Bax/Bak-deficient human cancer cells of different origin and found that while respiration in the glioblastoma U87 Bax/Bak-deficient cells was greatly enhanced, respiration of Bax/Bak-deficient B lymphoma HBL-2 cells was slightly suppressed. Bax/Bak-deficient U87 cells also proliferated faster in culture, formed tumours more rapidly in mice, and showed modulation of metabolism with a considerably increased NAD+/NADH ratio. Follow-up analyses documented increased/decreased expression of mitochondria-encoded subunits of respiratory complexes and stabilization/destabilization of the mitochondrial transcription elongation factor TEFM in Bax/Bak-deficient U87 and HBL-2 cells, respectively. TEFM downregulation using shRNAs attenuated mitochondrial respiration in Bax/Bak-deficient U87 as well as in parental HBL-2 cells. We propose that (post)translational regulation of TEFM levels in Bax/Bak-deficient cells modulates levels of subunits of mitochondrial respiratory complexes that, in turn, contribute to respiration and the accompanying changes in metabolism and proliferation in these cells.

B-cell lymphoma-2 family proteins in the crosshairs: Small molecule inhibitors and activators for cancer therapy.

The B-cell lymphoma-2 (BCL-2) family of proteins plays a crucial role in the regulation of apoptosis, offering a dual mechanism for its control. Numerous studies have established a strong association between gene disorders of these proteins and the proliferation of diverse cancer cell types. Consequently, the identification and development of drugs targeting BCL-2 family proteins have emerged as a prominent area in antitumor therapy. Over the last two decades, several small-molecules have been designed to modulate the protein-protein interactions between anti- and proapoptotic BCL-2 proteins, effectively suppressing tumor growth and metastasis in vivo. The primary focus of research has been on developing BCL-2 homology 3 (BH3) mimetics to target antiapoptotic BCL-2 proteins, thereby competitively releasing proapoptotic BCL-2 proteins and restoring the blocked intrinsic apoptotic program. Additionally, for proapoptotic BCL-2 proteins, exogenous small molecules have been explored to activate cell apoptosis by directly interacting with executioner proteins such as BCL-2-associated X protein (BAX) or BCL-2 homologous antagonist/killer protein (BAK). In this comprehensive review, we summarize the inhibitors and activators (sensitizers) of BCL-2 family proteins developed over the past decades, highlighting their discovery, optimization, preclinical and clinical status, and providing an overall landscape of drug development targeting these proteins for therapeutic purposes.

DNAi-peptide nanohybrid smart particles target BCL-2 oncogene and induce apoptosis in breast cancer cells.

Genomic DNA sequences provide unique target sites, with high druggability value, for treatment of genetically-linked diseases like cancer. B-cell lymphoma protein-2 (BCL-2) prevents Bcl-2-associated X protein (BAX) and Bcl-2 antagonist killer 1 (BAK) oligomerization, which would otherwise lead to the release of several apoptogenic molecules from the mitochondrion. It is also known that BCL-2 binds to and inactivates BAX and other pro-apoptotic proteins, thereby inhibiting apoptosis. BCL-2 protein family, through its role in regulation of apoptotic pathways, is possibly related to chemo-resistance in almost half of all cancer types including breast cancer. Here for the first time, we have developed a nanohybrid using a peptide-based carrier and a Deoxyribonucleic acid inhibitor (DNAi) against BCL-2 oncogene to induce apoptosis in breast cancer cells. The genetically designed nanocarrier was functionalized with an internalizing RGD (iRGD) targeting motif and successfully produced by recombinant DNA technology. Gel retardation assay demonstrated that the peptide-based carrier binds single-stranded DNAi upon simple mixing. Dynamic light scattering (DLS) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analyses further revealed the formation of nanohybrid particles with a size of 30 nm and a slightly positive charge. This hemocompatible nanohybrid efficiently delivered its contents into cancer cells using iRGD targeting moiety. Gene expression analysis demonstrated that the nanohybrids, which contained DNAi against BCL-2 proficiently suppressed the expression of this oncogene in a sequence specific manner. In addition, the nanohybrid, triggered release of cytochrome c (cyt c) and caspase3/7 activation with high efficiency. Although the DNAi and free nanocarrier were separately unable to affect the cell viability, the nanohybrid of 20 nM of DNAi showed outstanding antineoplastic potential, which was adjusted by the ratio of the MiRGD nanocarrier to DNAi. It should be noted that, the designed nanohybrid showed a suitable specificity profile and did not affect the viability of normal cells. The results suggest that this nanohybrid may be useful for robust breast cancer treatment through targeting the BCL-2 oncogene without any side effects.

Yeast Bax Inhibitor (Bxi1p/Ybh3p) Is Not Required for the Action of Bcl-2 Family Proteins on Cell Viability.

Permeabilization of mitochondrial membrane by proteins of the BCL-2 family is a key decisive event in the induction of apoptosis in mammalian cells. Although yeast does not have homologs of the BCL-2 family, when these are expressed in yeast, they modulate the survival of cells in a way that corresponds to their activity in mammalian cells. The yeast gene, alternatively referred to as BXI1 or YBH3, encodes for membrane protein in the endoplasmic reticulum that was, contradictorily, shown to either inhibit Bax or to be required for Bax activity. We have tested the effect of the deletion of this gene on the pro-apoptotic activity of Bax and Bak and the anti-apoptotic activity of Bcl-XL and Bcl-2, as well on survival after treatment with inducers of regulated cell death in yeast, hydrogen peroxide and acetic acid. While deletion resulted in increased sensitivity to acetic acid, it did not affect the sensitivity to hydrogen peroxide nor to BCL-2 family members. Thus, our results do not support any model in which the activity of BCL-2 family members is directly affected by BXI1 but rather indicate that it may participate in modulating survival in response to some specific forms of stress.

Hsa_circ_0002348 regulates trophoblast proliferation and apoptosis through miR-126-3p/BAK1 axis in preeclampsia.

BACKGROUND: Preeclampsia is a common pregnancy complication characterized by high blood pressure and damage to organs. Abnormal placenta and vascular function can lead to preeclampsia. Accumulating evidence has suggested a potential link between circular RNAs (circRNAs) and preeclampsia. As a placenta and endothelial-expressed circRNA, hsa_circ_0002348, may be promising to be the novel molecular target for preeclampsia. However, the function and mechanism of hsa_circ_0002348 in preeclampsia has not been elucidated. MATERIALS AND METHODS: An overlap analysis of two circRNA profiles from placenta and endothelial cells was used to identify a functionally unknown circRNA, hsa_circ_0002348. Quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) and in situ hybridization (ISH) were used to detect its expression in the trophoblast cells and placental tissues. The mouse model of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced preeclampsia was established to determine the in vivo role of hsa_circ_0002348. RNA immunoprecipitation (RIP), Luciferase reporter assay, qRT-PCR, western blot, gain- and loss-of-function and rescue experiments were conducted to uncover the role of hsa_circ_0002348 and its interaction with miR-126-3p and BAK1 in regulating trophoblast proliferation and apoptosis. Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and Immunohistochemistry (IHC) were performed to examine the expression of miR-126-3p and BAK1 in mice and human placentas, respectively. RESULTS: Hsa_circ_0002348 was significantly increased in the preeclampsia placentas, and positively correlated with the severity of preeclampsia patients' clinical manifestations. Its overexpression exacerbated preeclampsia-like features in the mouse model of LPS-induced preeclampsia. Functionally, hsa_circ_0002348 was found to inhibit trophoblast proliferation and promote trophoblast apoptosis. Mechanistically, hsa_circ_0002348, as an endogenous miR-126-3p sponge, upregulated the expression of BAK1. Additionally, both hsa_circ_0002348 knockdown and miR-126-3p overexpression enhanced the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) and ERK1/2 signaling pathway. CONCLUSIONS: Hsa_circ_0002348 might be a novel regulator of trophoblast proliferation and apoptosis through miR-126-3p/BAK1 axis in preeclampsia, which may serve as a potential target for detecting and treating preeclampsia.

BAK-Mediated Pyroptosis Promotes Japanese Encephalitis Virus Proliferation in Porcine Kidney 15 Cells.

As a zoonotic virus, Japanese Encephalitis virus (JEV) poses a serious threat to human health and the breeding industry. Regarding the mechanism and complications of tissue inflammation caused by JEV, such as encephalitis and orchitis, there is no effective drug treatment currently, and the mechanism of occurrence has not been thoroughly studied. Therefore, it is necessary to study the mechanism of the inflammatory pathway caused by JEV. As one of the key proteins regulating cell death, BCL2 antagonist/killer (BAK) is also a necessary prerequisite for the release of cellular inflammatory factors. We found that after JEV infection, BAK-knockdown cells died less than normal cells, and the transcription levels of inflammatory factors such as TNF, IFNα, and IL-1ß and their corresponding regulatory genes were also significantly reduced. By further verifying protein expression on the cell death pathway, it was found that pyroptotic activation and virus titer were also significantly reduced in BAK.KD cells, suggesting that JEV proliferation might be related to BAK-induced cell death. From our data, we could conclude that JEV utilized the BAK-promoted pyroptotic pathway to release more virions after the final Gasdermin D-N (GSDMD-N) protein pore formation for the purpose of JEV proliferation. Therefore, the study of the endogenous cell death activator protein BAK and the final release pathway of JEV, is expected to provide some new theoretical basis for future research on the screening of targeted drugs for the treatment of inflammatory diseases caused by JEV.

Quantifying requirements for mitochondrial apoptosis in CAR T killing of cancer cells.

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapy is an FDA-approved treatment for several hematologic malignancies, yet not all patients respond to this treatment. While some resistance mechanisms have been identified, cell death pathways in target cancer cells remain underexplored. Impairing mitochondrial apoptosis via knockout of Bak and Bax, forced Bcl-2 and Bcl-XL expression, or caspase inhibition protected several tumor models from CAR T killing. However, impairing mitochondrial apoptosis in two liquid tumor cell lines did not protect target cells from CAR T killing. We found that whether a cell was Type I or Type II in response to death ligands explained the divergence of these results, so that mitochondrial apoptosis was dispensable for CART killing of cells that were Type I but not Type II. This suggests that the apoptotic signaling induced by CAR T cells bears important similarities to that induced by drugs. Combinations of drug and CAR T therapies will therefore require tailoring to the specific cell death pathways activated by CAR T cells in different types of cancer cells.

Involvement of Bcl-2 Family Proteins in Tetraploidization-Related Senescence.

The B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) family of proteins is the main regulator of apoptosis. However, multiple emerging evidence has revealed that Bcl-2 family proteins are also involved in cellular senescence. On the one hand, the different expression of these proteins determines the entry into senescence. On the other hand, entry into senescence modulates the expression of these proteins, generally conferring resistance to apoptosis. With some exceptions, senescent cells are characterized by the upregulation of antiapoptotic proteins and downregulation of proapoptotic proteins. Under physiological conditions, freshly formed tetraploid cells die by apoptosis due to the tetraploidy checkpoint. However, suppression of Bcl-2 associated x protein (Bax), as well as overexpression of Bcl-2, favors the appearance and survival of tetraploid cells. Furthermore, it is noteworthy that our laboratory has shown that the joint absence of Bax and Bcl-2 antagonist/killer (Bak) favors the entry into senescence of tetraploid cells. Certain microtubule inhibitory chemotherapies, such as taxanes and vinca alkaloids, induce the generation of tetraploid cells. Moreover, the combined use of inhibitors of antiapoptotic proteins of the Bcl-2 family with microtubule inhibitors increases their efficacy. In this review, we aim to shed light on the involvement of the Bcl-2 family of proteins in the senescence program activated after tetraploidization and the possibility of using this knowledge to create a new therapeutic strategy targeting cancer cells.

Evaluation of the effect of nano-encapsulated lactoferrin on the expression of Bak and Bax genes in gastric cancer cell line AGS and study of the molecular docking of lactoferrin with these proteins.

lactoferrin (Lf) is a glycoprotein with various biological activities, including antibacterial, antiviral, anti-cancer, etc. In the present study, the effect of different concentrations of nano-encapsulated lactoferrin (NE-Lf) on the expression of Bax and Bak genes was evaluated in stomach cancer cell line AGS using real-time PCR technique and cytotoxicity of NE-Lf on the growth cells as well as the molecular mechanism of these two genes and their proteins in the apoptosis pathway and the relationship between lactoferrin and these proteins were investigated by bioinformatics studies. In the viability test, the results showed that the growth inhibition effect of nano-lactoferrin was greater than lactoferrin in both concentrations, and chitosan had no inhibitory effect on the cells. In concentrations of 250 and 500 µg of NE-Lf Bax gene expression increased by 2.3 and 5 times, respectively, and Bak gene expression increased by 1.94 and 1.74 times, respectively. Statistical analysis showed that there is a significant difference in the relative amount of gene expression between the treatments in both genes (P < 0.05). The binding mode of lactoferrin with Bax and Bak proteins was obtained using docking. According to docking results, the N-lobe region of lactoferrin interacts with the Bax protein, as well as the Bak protein. The results show that lactoferrin, in addition to acting on the gene, interacts with Bax and Bak proteins. Since two proteins are components of apoptosis, lactoferrin can induce apoptosis in this way.

Deletion of Bak1 alleviates microglial necroptosis and neuroinflammation after experimental subarachnoid hemorrhage.

Microglial necroptosis exacerbates neurodegenerative diseases, central nervous system (CNS) injury, and demonstrates a proinflammatory process, but its contribution to subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) is poorly characterized. BCL-2 homologous antagonist-killer protein (Bak1), a critical regulatory molecule of endogenous apoptosis, can be involved in the pathologic process of necroptosis by regulating mitochondrial permeability. In this study, we revealed microglia undergo necroptosis after SAH in vivo and vitro. Western blot revealed that Bak1 was elevated at 24 h after SAH. Knocked down of Bak1 by adeno-associated virus attenuates microglial necroptosis, alleviates neuroinflammation, and improves neurologic function after SAH in mice. Furthermore, oxyhemoglobin (10 µM) induced necroptosis in BV2 microglia, increasing Bak1 expression and mediating proinflammatory phenotype transformation, exacerbating oxidative stress and neuroinflammation. Abrogating BV2 Bak1 could reduce necroptosis by down-regulating the expression of phosphorylated pseudokinase mixed lineage kinase domain-like protein (p-MLKL), then down-regulating proinflammatory phenotype gene expression. RNA-Seq showed that disrupting BV2 Bak1 down-regulates multiple immune and inflammatory pathways and ameliorates cell injury by elevating thrombospondin 1 (THBS1) expression. In summary, we identified a critical regulatory role for Bak1 in microglial necroptosis and neuroinflammation after SAH. Bak1 is expected to be a potential target for the treatment strategy of SAH.

A common deletion at BAK1 reduces enhancer activity and confers risk of intracranial germ cell tumors.

Intracranial germ cell tumors (IGCTs) are rare brain neoplasms that mainly occur in children and adolescents with a particularly high incidence in East Asian populations. Here, we conduct a genome-wide association study (GWAS) of 133 patients with IGCTs and 762 controls of Japanese ancestry. A common 4-bp deletion polymorphism in an enhancer adjacent to BAK1 is significantly associated with the disease risk (rs3831846; P = 2.4 × 10-9, odds ratio = 2.46 [95% CI: 1.83-3.31], minor allele frequency = 0.43). Rs3831846 is in strong linkage disequilibrium with a testicular GCTs susceptibility variant rs210138. In-vitro reporter assays reveal rs3831846 to be a functional variant attenuating the enhancer activity, suggesting its contribution to IGCTs predisposition through altering BAK1 expression. Risk alleles of testicular GCTs derived from the European GWAS show significant positive correlations in the effect sizes with the Japanese IGCTs GWAS (P = 1.3 × 10-4, Spearman's ρ = 0.48). These results suggest the shared genetic susceptibility of GCTs beyond ethnicity and primary sites.

Decoding the concealed transcriptional signature of the apoptosis-related BCL2 antagonist/killer 1 (BAK1) gene in human malignancies.

BCL2 antagonist/killer (BAK) is a multidomain pro-apoptotic effector protein, encoded by the human BAK1 gene, which has emerged as a key checkpoint in the apoptotic machinery. Disassembly of BAK's tertiary structure, such as the truncation of the α1 helix, leads to deregulation of the pro-apoptotic functions and reduction of the protein's stability, thus being implicated in human malignancies. Although many studies have already clarified the vital role of BAK in cellular mechanisms, its pre-mRNA maturation process under cancerous and physiological human cells is neglected. In the present work, we developed and employed a custom multiplexed nanopore sequencing approach that enabled the identification and structural characterization of previously undescribed BAK1 mRNA transcripts (BAK1 v.2-v.11). The described novel mRNAs are derived from multiple types of alternative splicing events, including exon skipping and intron retentions. The implemented multiplexed long-read sequencing approach provided the detailed expression profile of the novel mRNAs in a wide panel of human malignancies and at the same time allowed their relative quantification as compared to the annotated BAK1 v.1. The validation of each novel transcript was carried out with qPCR-based assays. Our results strongly support that most of the novel BAK1 mRNAs harbor open reading frames with conserved BH domains that provide new insights into the correlated mechanisms of apoptosis suppression and cancer. The current study highlights for the first time the hidden aspects of BAK1's transcriptional landscape in both physiological and cancerous human cells and distinguishes the amino acid sequence of the putative BAK isoforms that may possess key apoptosis-related functions not only in diseases, but also under normal cellular conditions.

The BCL-2 family member BID plays a role during embryonic development in addition to its BH3-only protein function by acting in parallel to BAX, BAK and BOK.

The intrinsic apoptosis pathway, regulated by the BCL-2 protein family, is essential for embryonic development. Using mice lacking all known apoptosis effectors, BAX, BAK and BOK, we have previously defined the processes during development that require apoptosis. Rare Bok-/- Bax-/- Bak-/- triple knockout (TKO) mice developed to adulthood and several tissues that were thought to require apoptosis during development appeared normal. This raises the question if all apoptosis had been abolished in the TKO mice or if other BCL-2 family members could act as effectors of apoptosis. Here, we investigated the role of BID, generally considered to link the extrinsic and intrinsic apoptosis pathways, acting as a BH3-only protein initiating apoptosis upstream of BAX and BAK. We found that Bok-/- Bax-/- Bak-/- Bid-/- quadruple knockout (QKO) mice have additional developmental anomalies compared to TKO mice, consistent with a role of BID, not only upstream but also in parallel to BAX, BAK and BOK. Mitochondrial experiments identified a small cytochrome c-releasing activity of full-length BID. Collectively, these findings suggest a new effector role for BID in the intrinsic apoptosis pathway.

Pro-apoptotic complexes of BAX and BAK on the outer mitochondrial membrane.

In multicellular organisms the regulated cell death apoptosis is critically important for both ontogeny and homeostasis. Mitochondria are indispensable for stress-induced apoptosis. The BCL-2 protein family controls mitochondrial apoptosis and initiates cell death through the pro-apoptotic activities of BAX and BAK at the outer mitochondrial membrane (OMM). Cellular survival is ensured by the retrotranslocation of mitochondrial BAX and BAK into the cytosol by anti-apoptotic BCL-2 proteins. BAX/BAK-dependent OMM permeabilization releases the mitochondrial cytochrome c (cyt c), which initiates activation of caspase-9. The caspase cascade leads to cell shrinkage, plasma membrane blebbing, chromatin condensation, and apoptotic body formation. Although it is clear that ultimately complexes of active BAX and BAK commit the cell to apoptosis, the nature of these complexes is still enigmatic. Excessive research has described a range of complexes, varying from a few molecules to several 10,000, in different systems. BAX/BAK complexes potentially form ring-like structures that could expose the inner mitochondrial membrane. It has been suggested that these pores allow the efflux of small proteins and even mitochondrial DNA. Here we summarize the current state of knowledge for mitochondrial BAX/BAK complexes and the interactions between these proteins and the membrane.

Targeted Knockout of the dhfr, glul, bak1, and bax Genes by the Multiplex Genome Editing in CHO Cells.

The Chinese hamster ovary cell line CHO is widely used for biopharmaceutical production. Genome editing makes it possible to improve the growth properties of cells, their auxotrophy, and the functioning of the apoptosis and autophagy induction systems. Simultaneous editing of multiple genes makes it possible to obtain a cell line with the required genotype faster than several consecutive rounds of genomic knockout, but the probability of success is lower. Simultaneous editing of the dhfr, glul, bak1, and bax genes in the CHO S cells genome yielded 24 clones with signs of auxotrophy for thymidine and glutamine. Five of them turned out to be dhfr+/-, all five contained a knockout of one or two glul alleles. In one clone, 7 out of 8 target alleles were inactivated by a frameshift, and the second dhfr allele was partially inactivated by insertion of the GAA triplet, which reduced the enzyme activity 2.5 times. The probability of simultaneous knockout of both dhfr alleles increased to 50% when the genome was edited with a pair of guide RNAs directed to one exon of the dhfr gene.