Comparison of point and roadside transect methods to evaluate the abundance and richness of diurnal raptors in the arid region of Rajasthan.

Diurnal raptors show a wider distribution compared to other groups of birds including passerines, woodpeckers, and seriemas, but occur at lower-than-expected densities. Estimating the precise abundance is essential to achieve conservation goals but the methods used to estimate the populations of birds need to be appropriate to arrive at meaningful conclusions. We compared the two survey methods: roadside point count and strip transects, for estimating species richness and abundance of raptors in the arid landscape of Rajasthan. Roadside point counts and roadside strip transects were done on 50 transects between December 2019- February 2020 (with an average length of 20 km and a total distance of 3000 km) to assess the species richness and abundance of raptors. A total of 2954 observations of raptors belonging to 35 species were recorded using both methods. Mann Whitney U test result showed no significant difference in species richness and abundance estimates between both methods (p = 0.206). The point count method yielded a higher relative abundance of 2.79 individuals [10 km2]-1h-1 than the 1.90 individuals [10 km2]-1h-1 obtained during the strip transect. Also, the number of unidentified species were less for point counts. Extrapolation values indicated that both the methods do not differ much for the detection of unsampled species. The choice of survey method depends on the objectives of the study, but our results favor the use of point counts rather than strip transects to survey raptors in open habitats. The information generated from this study is expected to provide the most efficient method to study the abundance and distribution of raptors in similar landscapes.

Molecular identification of Sarcocystis halieti in the muscles of two species of birds of prey from Spain.

BACKGROUND: Members of the genus Sarcocystis are protozoan parasites characterized by a prey-predator two-host life-cycle. Sarcocysts are formed in the muscles or central nervous system of the intermediate host (IH), while sporocysts develop in the small intestine of the definitive host (DH). Various birds of prey have been confirmed to be DH for Sarcocystis spp. Three Sarcocystis species, S. wobeseri, S. halieti and S. falcatula, have been identified in the muscles of birds of prey, of which the latter are known to be pathogenic and can cause encephalitis in various birds. The aim of this study was to identify Sarcocystis spp. in the muscles of birds of prey from Spain. METHODS: Between 2019 and 2020, muscle tissue samples taken from 59 birds of prey admitted to the Wildlife Recovery Centre in Ilundain (Navarra, Spain) were examined for the presence of Sarcocystis spp. Sarcocysts in fresh squashed samples were morphologically characterized under the light microscope (LM). Sarcocystis spp. were identified by means of 28S ribosomal RNA and internal transcribed spacer 1 sequence analysis. RESULTS: Microscopic examination of squashed tissue samples stained with methylene blue revealed the presence of sarcocysts in three of the 59 (5.1%) birds examined. Only one sarcocyst type was observed under the LM. Sarcocysts were thread-like (1050-2160 × 130-158 µm) and had a thin (0.7-1.4 µm) and smooth cyst wall. Septa divided the cysts into compartments filled with banana-shaped (5.9 × 1.7 µm) bradyzoites. On the basis of DNA sequence results, S. halieti was identified in the western marsh harrier (Circus aeruginosus) and the black kite (Milvus migrans) for the first time. Sarcocysts of S. halieti were shorter and wider compared to those observed in the great cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo) and the herring gull (Larus argentatus). According to current knowledge, S. halieti may infect birds belonging to four different orders: Suliformes, Charadriiformes, Strigiformes and Accipitriformes. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first report of S. halieti in the western marsh harrier and the black kite as IH. So far, little research has been conducted on birds of prey as IH for Sarcocystis spp. These results indicate that further studies combining morphological, histopathological, and molecular methods are required.

A tiny, long-legged raptor from the early Oligocene of Poland may be the earliest bird-eating diurnal bird of prey.

We report a small hawk-like diurnal bird from the early Oligocene (30-31 million years ago) of Poland. Aviraptor longicrus, n. gen. et sp. is of a size comparable with the smallest extant Accipitridae. The new species is characterized by very long legs, which, together with the small size, suggest an avivorous (bird-eating) feeding behavior. Overall, the new species resembles extant sparrowhawks (Accipiter spp.) in the length proportions of the major limb bones, even though some features indicate that it convergently acquired an Accipiter-like morphology. Most specialized avivores amongst extant accipitrids belong to the taxon Accipiter and predominantly predate small forest passerines; the smallest Accipiter species also hunts hummingbirds. Occurrence of a possibly avivorous raptor in the early Oligocene of Europe is particularly notable because A. longicrus coexisted with the earliest Northern Hemispheric passerines and modern-type hummingbirds. We therefore hypothesize that the diversification of these birds towards the early Oligocene may have triggered the evolution of small-sized avivorous raptors, and the new fossil may exemplify one of the earliest examples of avian predator/prey coevolution.

Towards reconciliation of the four world bird lists: hotspots of disagreement in taxonomy of raptors.

There are currently four world bird lists referenced by different stakeholders including governments, academic journals, museums and citizen scientists. Consolidation of these lists is a conservation and research priority. In reconciling lists, care must be taken to ensure agreement in taxonomic concepts-the actual groups of individual organisms circumscribed by a given scientific epithet. Here, we compare species-level taxonomic concepts for raptors across the four lists, highlighting areas of disagreement. Of the 665 species-level raptor taxa observed at least once among the four lists, only 453 (68%) were consistent across all four lists. The Howard and Moore Checklist of the Birds of the World contains the fewest raptor species (528), whereas the International Ornithological Community World Bird List contains the most (580) and these two lists are in the most disagreement. Of the disagreements, 67% involved owls, and Indonesia was the country containing the most disagreed upon species (169). Finally, we calculated the amount of species-level agreement across lists for each avian order and found raptor orders spread throughout the rankings of agreement. Our results emphasize the need to reconcile the four world bird lists for all avian orders, highlight broad disagreements across lists and identify hotspots of disagreement for raptors, in particular.

Morphological and molecular characterization of avian trypanosomes in raptors from Thailand.

From September 2012 to May 2018, blood samples from 364 raptors (mostly adults) were collected and screened for trypanosomes and haemosporidians by microscopic examination and nested polymerase chain reactions (PCR). Trypanosoma spp. were identified in 15 birds from eight different species. Light microscopy revealed 14 cases of infection with Trypanosoma cf. corvi, including one each in black-shouldered kite (Elanus caeruleus, n = 49), Brahminy kite (Haliastur indus, n = 50), and spotted owlet (SO, Athene brama, n = 27); two mountain hawk-eagles (Spizaetus nipalensis, n = 3); and three each in Asian barred owlets (ABO, Glaucidium cuculoides, n = 27), barn owls (BO, Tyto alba, n = 65) and collared scops owls (CSO, Otus lettia, n = 41). In addition, one case of infection with T. avium was identified in an oriental scops owl (OSO, Otus sunia, n = 2). All infected raptors showed very low parasitemia levels. The PCR detected more three positives in one CSO, one Japanese sparrowhawk (Accipiter gularis), and one OSO. The sensitivity and specificity of the PCR method were 93.3% and 99.1%, respectively. The overall infection rate was very low (4.9%). The highest infection rate was recorded in cold-dry season (9.9%). Coinfection of Plasmodium with trypanosomes was found in all three ABOs. Coinfection with Haemoproteus spp. was found in one BO, three CSOs, and one SO. Coinfection with Haemoproteus spp. and Leucocytozoon danilewskyi was found in the OSO. Microfilarias were detected in one ABO and one CSO. The ultrastructure of trypomastigotes of T. cf. corvi in an ABO revealed fine structures. All small subunit ribosomal RNA (SSU rRNA) sequences belong to two clades: T. avium and T. corvi-culicavium complex/group. SSU rRNA gene amplification was not successful in one BO. The raptors with trypanosome infections showed normal hematological values and healthy appearance. Furthermore, this is the first report of T. avium in a nocturnal raptor from Thailand.

Raptor talon shape and biomechanical performance are controlled by relative prey size but not by allometry.

Most birds of prey (raptors), rely heavily on their talons for capturing prey. However, the relationship between talon shape and the ability to take prey is poorly understood. In this study we investigate whether raptor talons have evolved primarily in response to adaptive pressures exerted by different dietary demands, or if talon morphology is largely constrained by allometric or phylogenetic factors. We focus on the hallux talon and include 21 species in total varying greatly in body mass and feeding ecology, ranging from active predation on relatively large prey to obligate scavenging. To quantify the variation in talon shape and biomechanical performance within a phylogenetic framework, we combined three dimensional (3D) geometric morphometrics, finite element modelling and phylogenetic comparative methods. Our results indicate that relative prey size plays a key role in shaping the raptorial talon. Species that hunt larger prey are characterised by both distinct talon shape and mechanical performance when compared to species that predate smaller prey, even when accounting for phylogeny. In contrast to previous results of skull-based analysis, allometry had no significant effect. In conclusion, we found that raptor talon evolution has been strongly influenced by relative prey size, but not allometry and, that talon shape and mechanical performance are good indicators of feeding ecology.

On the overlap between scientific and societal taxonomic attentions - Insights for conservation.

Attention directed at different species by society and science is particularly relevant within the field of conservation, as societal preferences will strongly impact support for conservation initiatives and their success. Here, we assess the association between societal and research interests in four charismatic and threatened species groups, derived from a range of different online sources and social media platforms as well as scientific publications. We found a high level of concordance between scientific and societal taxonomic attention, which was consistent among assessed species groups and media sources. Results indicate that research is apparently not as disconnected from the interests of society as it is often reproached, and that societal support for current research objectives should be adequate. While the high degree of similarity between scientific and societal interest is both striking and satisfying, the dissimilarities are also interesting, as new scientific findings may constitute a constant source of novel interest for the society. In that respect, additional efforts will be necessary to draw scientific and societal focus towards less charismatic species that are in urgent need of research and conservation attention.

The shapes of bird beaks are highly controlled by nondietary factors.

Bird beaks are textbook examples of ecological adaptation to diet, but their shapes are also controlled by genetic and developmental histories. To test the effects of these factors on the avian craniofacial skeleton, we conducted morphometric analyses on raptors, a polyphyletic group at the base of the landbird radiation. Despite common perception, we find that the beak is not an independently targeted module for selection. Instead, the beak and skull are highly integrated structures strongly regulated by size, with axes of shape change linked to the actions of recently identified regulatory genes. Together, size and integration account for almost 80% of the shape variation seen between different species to the exclusion of morphological dietary adaptation. Instead, birds of prey use size as a mechanism to modify their feeding ecology. The extent to which shape variation is confined to a few major axes may provide an advantage in that it facilitates rapid morphological evolution via changes in body size, but may also make raptors especially vulnerable when selection pressures act against these axes. The phylogenetic position of raptors suggests that this constraint is prevalent in all landbirds and that breaking the developmental correspondence between beak and braincase may be the key novelty in classic passerine adaptive radiations.

An overview of existing raptor contaminant monitoring activities in Europe.

Biomonitoring using raptors as sentinels can provide early warning of the potential impacts of contaminants on humans and the environment and also a means of tracking the success of associated mitigation measures. Examples include detection of heavy metal-induced immune system impairment, PCB-induced altered reproductive impacts, and toxicity associated with lead in shot game. Authorisation of such releases and implementation of mitigation is now increasingly delivered through EU-wide directives but there is little established pan-European monitoring to quantify outcomes. We investigated the potential for EU-wide coordinated contaminant monitoring using raptors as sentinels. We did this using a questionnaire to ascertain the current scale of national activity across 44 European countries. According to this survey, there have been 52 different contaminant monitoring schemes with raptors over the last 50years. There were active schemes in 15 (predominantly western European) countries and 23 schemes have been running for >20years; most monitoring was conducted for >5years. Legacy persistent organic compounds (specifically organochlorine insecticides and PCBs), and metals/metalloids were monitored in most of the 15 countries. Fungicides, flame retardants and anticoagulant rodenticides were also relatively frequently monitored (each in at least 6 countries). Common buzzard (Buteo buteo), common kestrel (Falco tinnunculus), golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), white-tailed sea eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla), peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus), tawny owl (Strix aluco) and barn owl (Tyto alba) were most commonly monitored (each in 6-10 countries). Feathers and eggs were most widely analysed although many schemes also analysed body tissues. Our study reveals an existing capability across multiple European countries for contaminant monitoring using raptors. However, coordination between existing schemes and expansion of monitoring into Eastern Europe is needed. This would enable assessment of the appropriateness of the EU-regulation of substances that are hazardous to humans and the environment, the effectiveness of EU level mitigation policies, and identify pan-European spatial and temporal trends in current and emerging contaminants of concern.

Phylogenetic position of avian nocturnal and diurnal raptors.

We report three new avian mitochondrial genomes, two from widely separated groups of owls and a falcon relative (the Secretarybird). We then report additional progress in resolving Neoavian relationships in that the two groups of owls do come together (it is not just long-branch attraction), and the Secretarybird is the deepest divergence on the Accipitridae lineage. This is now agreed between mitochondrial and nuclear sequences. There is no evidence for the monophyly of the combined three groups of raptors (owls, eagles, and falcons), and again this is agreed by nuclear and mitochondrial sequences. All three groups (owls, accipitrids [eagles], and falcons) do appear to be members of the "higher land birds," and though there may not yet be full "consilience" between mitochondrial and nuclear sequences for the precise order of divergences of the eagles, falcons, and the owls, there is good progress on their relationships.

A comparative study of corneal sensitivity in birds of prey.

OBJECTIVE: To determine and compare the corneal sensitivity in healthy wild diurnal and nocturnal birds of prey (BP) indigenous to Catalonia (Spain), and to establish if age is a determining factor in corneal sensitivity in those species. METHODS: Ophthalmic examination was performed in 105 BP. Only birds with no ocular abnormalities were included in the study (n = 81): 21 diurnal BP (Falco tinnunculus: 16 fledglings, 5 adults) and 60 nocturnal BP (20 Athene noctua [9 fledglings, 11 adults], 20 Strix aluco [15 fledglings, 5 adults], and 20 Otus scops [6 fledglings and 14 adults]). Corneal touch threshold (CTT) was determined for each eye in five different corneal regions. Five attempts to cause a blink reflex were made in each region, and when three or more reflexes were positive, the pressure was deemed the CTT. Statistical analysis was performed using a Student's t-test for independent data or an anova model. The results between species and age groups were compared using the Generalized Estimated Equations model. RESULTS: There were no significant differences between any of the corneal regions (P = 0.25), or between the right (CTT = 4.9 ± 1.7 cm) and left (CTT = 4.8 ± 1.7 cm) eye in any of the species (P = 0.692). No difference was found between diurnal and nocturnal species (P = 0.913). Considering all the species, a significant difference was found between the mean CTT of fledglings (5.4 ± 1.2 cm) and adults (4.1 ± 2 cm), P < 0.001. A significant difference was found between fledglings and adults of A. noctua (P < 0.001) and S. aluco (P = 0.002). CONCLUSIONS: There is no significant difference in CTT between the different corneal regions in all the species studied. Corneal sensitivity is similar between diurnal and nocturnal birds of prey. Age is a determining factor in the CTT of A. noctua and S. aluco, with fledglings having a significantly higher CTT.

Helminth fauna of Falconiform and Strigiform birds of prey in Galicia, Northwest Spain.

This is a survey of the helminth fauna of 285 individuals of 14 species of birds of prey (Falconiformes and Strigiformes) from Galicia (northwest Spain), namely Buteo buteo, Accipiter nisus, A. gentilis, Milvus migrans, M. milvus, Pernis apivorus, Circus pygargus, Falco tinnunculus, F. peregrinus, F. subbuteo, Tyto alba, Strix aluco, Asio otus and Athene noctua. A total of 15 helminth species were detected, namely 8 nematodes ( Eucoleus dispar, Capillaria tenuissima, Synhimantus laticeps, Microtetrameres sp., Physaloptera alata, Procyrnea leptoptera, Hovorkonema variegatum and Porrocaecum angusticolle), 4 cestodes ( Cladotaenia globifera, Paruterina candelabraria and Mesocestoides sp.), 2 trematodes ( Neodiplostomum attenuatum and Strigea falconis), and 1 acanthocephalan ( Centrorhynchus globocaudatus). The helminth communities observed were basically similar, although there were marked differences in species richness, which was higher in falconiforms (except for A. gentilis) than in strigiforms. More specifically, species richness was highest in B. buteo (13 species), followed by A. nisus (11 species). In the falconiforms, the helminth species present generally exhibited a clear relationship with host diet. In the strigiforms, by contrast, species richness was lower than expected given the host's diet, suggesting that a different explanation is needed.

A retrospective study of the success of medical and surgical treatment of wild Australian raptors.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the results of medical and surgical regimens utilised to treat injured and diseased wild Australian raptors presented at our practice, and to determine if the time, effort and cost of treating the birds was justified in terms of the outcomes achieved. PROCEDURE: All the practice's clinical records relating to the examination and treatment of wild raptors were reviewed for the period April 1994 to December 1998. The species of birds, the aetiology of their injuries or diseases, the treatment protocols and the outcomes of those treatments were correlated and tabulated for evaluation. RESULTS: Fifteen Australian species of raptor were examined and treated. Complete records were available for 104 birds of prey, 73 being Accipitriformes and 31 Strigiformes. The poorest prognosis was for birds involved in motor vehicle impacts, while birds suffering malnutrition or starvation had higher survival rates. The overall rate of survival was 50%. CONCLUSION: Based on the severity of diseases and injuries at the time of presentation, the survival rate was considered acceptable. Veterinary involvement in the treatment of the wild raptors was necessary for the maintenance of the birds' welfare, and to determine appropriate treatments. Intangible benefits included increased practice staff satisfaction, and improving the veterinary professions' public image by providing pro bono treatment for Australian wildlife.

Distribución temporal de aves rapaces diurnas en la reserva "Playón de Mismaloya", Jalisco, México / Temporal distribution of diurnal rapacious birds in \"Playón de Mismaloya\", Jalisco, México

Diurnal raptors were counted monthly in the "Playón de Mismaloya", reserve, Jalisco, Mexico, from November 1997 to October 1998. We identified 11 species; eight of them migrants, one resident and two resident with migrant populations. The highest increase in total number of individuals was from December to March, influenced mainly by the presence of Caracara polancus (Crested Caracara), Falco sparverius (American Kestrel) and Pandion haliaetus (Osprey). The two former species were observed frequently in open areas, where they could detect prey more easily, while ospreys were found only in estuaries, lagoons and beach, where food was available.

Zooarchaeological and taphonomic analysis of the Die Kelders Cave 1 layers 10 and 11 Middle Stone Age larger mammal fauna.

Middle Stone Age (MSA) and Middle Paleolithic (MP) faunal assemblages have gained widespread attention due to their relevance to the debate over the modernity of hominid behavior during the MSA/MP. A recent critique of the scavenging argument for MSA/MP behavior drew on a summary presentation of the skeletal abundance and surface modification data from Die Kelders Cave 1 Layer 10 (Marean, 1998). This paper provides a more complete presentation of those data, adds the smaller Layer 11 sample, and provides a detailed analysis of the taphonomic history of both samples.Bone fragment density is higher in Layer 10 than in Layer 11. Bone densities vary horizontally as well, with Layer 10 showing greater deposition in the exposed areas of the cave. An analysis of long bone breakage patterns indicates that non-nutritive breakage on the Layers 10 and 11 samples was present but not intense. Size 1 mammals were predominantly accumulated by owls and/or other large raptors, not hominids, in Layer 10. Hominids were the predominant accumulator of Sizes 2-4 mammals in Layers 10 and 11 as indicated by the frequency of hammer-stone percussion marks and carnivore toothmarks. After discard by hominids, a significant portion of these remains were discovered and scavenged by carnivores. Overall, the larger mammal fauna of Layer 10 is dominated by Sizes 3 and 4 bovids, mostly young and adult eland, and thus hominids were focusing on the high-ranked prey items. Shaft portions of long bones, the portions with the most flesh, have the highest frequencies of cutmarks. A comparison of the Layers 10 and 11 cutmark frequencies to Selvaggio's (1998) scavenging model shows that the frequencies are significantly outside the range of variation documented in Selavaggio's scavenging sample.

Genetic relationships in the peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) analysed by microsatellite DNA markers.

Microsatellite DNA markers were developed from a peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus) and genetic relationships among peregrine falcons in southern Norway were analysed using the markers. The genomic DNA library was screened for the presence of dinucleotide microsatellite repeats. Twelve loci revealed polymorphism through the initial analysis of 24 unrelated peregrine falcons, and Mendelian inheritance was confirmed in two peregrine falcon families bred in captivity. The estimated mean probability of identical genotypes in two unrelated individuals was 3 x 10-8, and the combined exclusion probability for parentage testing was 0.99 and 0.94 for one or both parents unknown, respectively. The markers were used to investigate the parentage of peregrine broods from the same nest site from different breeding seasons, and subsequently the nest-site fidelity of the breeding peregrines. High nest-site fidelity was found by studying pairwise comparisons of relatedness (rxy) estimates among chicks at six nest sites from three different breeding seasons. Cross-species amplifications showed that most loci also appeared to amplify polymorphic products in the gyrfalcon (F. rusticolus), merlin (F. columbarius), hobby (F. subbuteo) and kestrel (F. tinnunculus), demonstrating that the loci will provide powerful genetic markers in these falcons too.

[Temporal distribution of diurnal rapacious birds in "Playón de Mismaloya" Reservation, Jalisco, Mexico]. / Distribución temporal de aves rapaces diurnas en la reserva "Playón de Mismaloya", Jalisco, México.

Diurnal raptors were counted monthly in the "Playón de Mismaloya", reserve, Jalisco, Mexico, from November 1997 to October 1998. We identified 11 species; eight of them migrants, one resident and two resident with migrant populations. The highest increase in total number of individuals was from December to March, influenced mainly by the presence of Caracara polancus (Crested Caracara), Falco sparverius (American Kestrel) and Pandion haliaetus (Osprey). The two former species were observed frequently in open areas, where they could detect prey more easily, while ospreys were found only in estuaries, lagoons and beach, where food was available.