School-based health centers as an approach to address health disparities among rural youth: A study protocol for a multilevel research framework.

School-Based Health Centers (SBHCs) are important healthcare providers for children in medically underserved communities. While most existing research on SBHCs has focused on urban environments, this study protocol proposes a mixed-methods, multi-level research framework to evaluate the role of SBHCs in addressing health disparities among underserved children and adolescents in rural communities. The study area includes four high-poverty rural counties in New York State served by Bassett Healthcare Network that permits a comparison of school districts with SBHCs to those without SBHCs, all served by providers within the Bassett Healthcare Network. We employ a human ecological framework that integrates the micro layer of individuals and families, the meso layer of school districts and community institutions, and the macro layer of local and state policies. Our research framework first identifies the socioecological health risk factors, and then proposes innovative strategies to investigate how SBHCs impact them. We propose evaluating the impact of SBHCs on the individual (micro) level of child healthcare utilization using patient records data. At the meso level, we propose to investigate how School-SBHCs partnership may facilitate greater cross-agency collaboration and broader structural and social determinist of health to address health disparities. At the macro level, we propose to assess the impact of SBHCs and cross-agency collaboration on outcomes associated with a culture of community health. This study protocol will enable researchers to assess how SBHCs reduce rural health disparities, and provide evidence for organizational and public policy change.

Qualitative multi-stakeholder evaluation of the adoption, implementation and sustainment of the school-based dietary intervention "Jump-in".

BACKGROUND: Comprehensive school-based programs applying the WHO Health Promoting School Model have the potential to initiate and sustain behavior change and impact health. However, since they often include intervention efforts on a school's policies, physical environment, curriculum, health care and involving parents and communities, they significantly 'intrude' on a complex system that is aimed primarily at education, not health promotion. More insights into and concrete strategies are therefore needed regarding their adoption, implementation, and sustainment processes to address the challenge to sustainable implementation of HPS initiatives in a primarily educational setting. This study consequently evaluates adoption, implementation and sustainment processes of Amsterdam's Jump-in healthy nutrition HPS intervention from a multi-stakeholder perspective. METHODS: We conducted semi-structured interviews and focus groups with all involved stakeholders (n = 131), i.e., Jump-in health promotion professionals (n = 5), school principals (n = 7), at-school Jump-in coordinators (n = 7), teachers (n = 20), parents (n = 50, 9 groups) and children (n = 42, 7 groups) from 10 primary schools that enrolled in Jump-in in the school year 2016-2017. Included schools had a higher prevalence of overweight and/or obesity than the Dutch average and they were all located in Amsterdam's low-SEP neighborhoods. Data were analyzed using a directed content analysis, in which the Determinants of Innovation Model was used for obtaining theory-based predetermined codes, supplemented with new codes emerging from the data. RESULTS: During intervention adoption, all stakeholders emphasized the importance of parental support, and accompanying workshops and promotional materials. Additionally, parents and teachers indicated that a shared responsibility for children's health and nuanced framing of health messages were important. During implementation, all stakeholders needed clear guidelines and support structures. Teachers and children highlighted the importance of peer influence, social norms, and uniform application of guidelines. School staff also found further tailoring of the intervention and dealing with financial constraints important. For long-term intervention sustainment, incorporating the intervention policies into the school statutes was crucial according to health promotion professionals. CONCLUSIONS: This qualitative evaluation provides valuable insights into factors influencing the adoption, implementation, and sustainment processes of dietary interventions, such as the importance of transparent and consistent intervention guidelines, clear communication regarding the rationale behind intervention guidelines, and, stakeholders' involvement in decision-making.

Help-seeking processes related to targeted school-based mental health services: systematic review.

BACKGROUND: One in seven adolescents globally are affected by mental health conditions, yet only a minority receive professional help. School-based mental health services have been endorsed as an effective way to increase access to mental health support for people at risk, or currently presenting with mental health conditions, throughout adolescence. Despite this, low treatment utilisation prevails, therefore the aim of this review is to contribute insights into the processes related to adolescents' accessing and engaging with essential targeted mental health support within schools. METHODS: This systematic review extracted qualitative, quantitative and mixed-methods data to determine what processes affect adolescents seeking help from targeted school-based mental health services (TSMS). Searches were conducted in EMBASE, Medline, PsycINFO, CINAHL, ERIC, Web of Science, in addition to manual searching and expert consultations. Data were synthesised following guidelines for thematic synthesis and narrative style synthesis. RESULTS: The search resulted in 22 articles reflecting 16 studies with participant sample sizes ranging from n = 7 to n = 122. Three main themes were identified: 'access-related factors', 'concerns related to stigma', and 'the school setting'. These findings elucidate how help-seeking processes are variable and can be facilitated or hindered depending on the circumstance. We identified disparities with certain groups, such as those from low-socio economic or ethnic minority backgrounds, facing more acute challenges in seeking help. Help-seeking behaviours were notably influenced by concerns related to peers; an influence further accentuated by minority groups given the importance of social recognition. Conflicting academic schedules significantly contribute to characterising treatment barriers. CONCLUSIONS: The findings of this review ought to guide the delivery and development of TSMS to facilitate access and promote help-seeking behaviours. Particularly, given the evidence gaps identified in the field, future studies should prioritise investigating TSMS in low- and middle-income settings and through quantitative methodologies. REGISTRATION: The protocol for this systematic review was registered on PROSPERO (ID CRD42023406824).

A Profile of Occupational Therapists Working in School-Based Practice in Australian Primary Schools.

Inclusive education has increased the demand for school-based occupational therapy services and has reconceptualised the practice in mainstream schools. Therapists are now expected to work collaboratively with teachers within tiered intervention models to support access and participation of all students, including those with disabilities, within the natural classroom context. School-based occupational therapy has become a specialised area of practice, as therapists work within educational, rather than health, systems and processes. While the growth in demand and expanded scope of practice is positive for the profession, predicted workforce shortages and the necessity for specialised and enhanced practice present significant challenges. The ability of the profession to fully support the demands of an inclusive education system remains unclear. As accurate, up-to-date information on the school-based therapy workforce is the foundation for planning future personnel needs, knowledge of the current state of the workforce is critical. There is a paucity of national data regarding this growing area of practice. The aim of this study is to describe a current profile of school-based occupational therapists to better understand the workforce, practice patterns, and the funding landscape in Australia. A convenient and purposive sample of 108 Australian paediatric occupational therapists working in mainstream primary schools in New South Wales, Queensland, and Victoria was surveyed in this quantitative study, which was analysed using descriptive statistics. Results provide some insights into the workforce and practice of school-based therapy in Australia offering preliminary data for future planning in this important and growing area of paediatric practice. While specific to the local context, results invite cross-national and global comparison to reveal universal trends and localised nuances across diverse settings.

Maryland School Health partners' Perspectives on the Impact of COVID-19 on School Health Services for Grades K-12.

BACKGROUND: The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted routine school operations, including school health programs. This study aims to describe the pandemic's impact on school health service delivery from the perspective of Maryland school health partners. METHODS: We conducted semi-structured interviews with health service representatives from public schools (K-12) between July and December 2021. Interviews were recorded, transcribed, and coded through an iterative process to develop analytic themes. RESULTS: Twenty school health partners from 15 Maryland school districts participated. Participants identified key impacts of COVID-19 on school health: (1) COVID-19 disrupted delivery of services such as dental, mental health, and preventative care, (2) COVID-19 necessitated changes in service delivery platforms, (3) COVID-19 affected school health staff through increased responsibilities and staffing shortages, and (4) COVID-19 prompted schools to become hubs for community outreach and health education. IMPLICATIONS FOR SCHOOL HEALTH POLICY, PRACTICE, AND EQUITY: Consideration of school health service disruptions and the increased demands on service providers may inform future priorities for school administrators, health departments, and policymakers. CONCLUSIONS: COVID-19 impacted the timing and method of service delivery as well as the roles of school health staff and schools themselves in public health and education.

A Model of Community Health Worker Integration into Schools: Community-based Participatory Research in Action.

BACKGROUND: Schools are rich sites for collaborations between health and educational sectors. OBJECTIVES: To identify lessons learned from formation of a community-academic partnership and application of community-based participatory research (CBPR) to develop a model that integrates community health workers into schools. METHODS: Individuals from an academic medical center, a large public school district, and a community-based research institute applied CBPR principles to reimagine schools as a place for improving the health of children. LESSONS LEARNED: Three lessons emerged. Leveraging each team member's expertise centered the partnership on community strengths, co-learning, and stakeholder engagement. Adherence to CBPR's principles of power sharing and equity helped navigate the challenges of collaboration between large institutions. Early focus on sustainability helped address unexpected issues, build capacity, and boost advocacy. CONCLUSIONS: This partnership demonstrates how CBPR fosters conditions in which equitable partnerships between research institutions and public schools can thrive to promote childhood health.

The Health4Life e-health intervention for modifying lifestyle risk behaviours of adolescents: secondary outcomes of a cluster randomised controlled trial.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate the effectiveness of a school-based multiple health behaviour change e-health intervention for modifying risk factors for chronic disease (secondary outcomes). STUDY DESIGN: Cluster randomised controlled trial. SETTING, PARTICIPANTS: Students (at baseline [2019]: year 7, 11-14 years old) at 71 Australian public, independent, and Catholic schools. INTERVENTION: Health4Life: an e-health school-based multiple health behaviour change intervention for reducing increases in the six major behavioural risk factors for chronic disease: physical inactivity, poor diet, excessive recreational screen time, poor sleep, and use of alcohol and tobacco. It comprises six online video modules during health education class and a smartphone app. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Comparison of Health4Life and usual health education with respect to their impact on changes in twelve secondary outcomes related to the six behavioural risk factors, assessed in surveys at baseline, immediately after the intervention, and 12 and 24 months after the intervention: binge drinking, discretionary food consumption risk, inadequate fruit and vegetable intake, difficulty falling asleep, and light physical activity frequency (categorical); tobacco smoking frequency, alcohol drinking frequency, alcohol-related harm, daytime sleepiness, and time spent watching television and using electronic devices (continuous). RESULTS: A total of 6640 year 7 students completed the baseline survey (Health4Life: 3610; control: 3030); 6454 (97.2%) completed at least one follow-up survey, 5698 (85.8%) two or more follow-up surveys. Health4Life was not statistically more effective than usual school health education for influencing changes in any of the twelve outcomes over 24 months; for example: fruit intake inadequate: odds ratio [OR], 1.08 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.57-2.05); vegetable intake inadequate: OR, 0.97 (95% CI, 0.64-1.47); increased light physical activity: OR, 1.00 (95% CI, 0.72-1.38); tobacco use frequency: relative difference, 0.03 (95% CI, -0.58 to 0.64) days per 30 days; alcohol use frequency: relative difference, -0.34 (95% CI, -1.16 to 0.49) days per 30 days; device use time: relative difference, -0.07 (95% CI, -0.29 to 0.16) hours per day. CONCLUSIONS: Health4Life was not more effective than usual school year 7 health education for modifying adolescent risk factors for chronic disease. Future e-health multiple health behaviour change intervention research should examine the timing and length of the intervention, as well as increasing the number of engagement strategies (eg, goal setting) during the intervention. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry: ACTRN12619000431123 (prospective).

Protocol for a cluster-randomized trial of a school-based skin cancer preventive intervention for adolescents.

BACKGROUND: Adolescents infrequently use sun protection and engage in intentional tanning more frequently compared to other age groups, leading to increased ultraviolet radiation (UVR) exposure that heightens skin cancer risk across the lifespan. High schools are therefore an ideal setting for offering skin cancer preventive interventions. Yet, there are limited UVR protection interventions for high school students, especially those that are personalized, tested using randomized designs, and include long-term outcome assessment to determine the durability of intervention effects. METHOD: The Sun-safe Habits Intervention and Education (SHINE) cluster-randomized trial will test a novel, personalized intervention that targets high school adolescents' sun protection and tanning behaviors, and tracks their outcomes for up to one year following intervention. Enrolled high schools will be randomized to receive either the personalized SHINE intervention, which includes facial UVR photographs and sun protection action planning, or standard education using publicly available materials. Students in both conditions will receive information about skin cancer, sun protection, and skin self-examination. Outcome variables will include students' sun protection and tanning behaviors and sunburn occurrence. Potential moderators (e.g., race/ethnicity) and mediators (e.g., self-efficacy) will also be assessed and tested. CONCLUSIONS: This trial examines the efficacy of a personalized intervention targeting sun protection and tanning of high school students. The project will lead to new scientific understanding of the theoretical mechanisms underlying outcomes and moderators of the intervention effects, which will inform future intervention tailoring to meet the needs of vulnerable subgroups.

Current challenges in school-based health center care: COVID, mental health care, immigrant youth, expansion of telemedicine.

School based health centers (SBHCs) have been providing preventive, acute and chronic care in schools across the United States (US) for the past 40 years. A discussion of that care is provided in a companion article to this one. Several major societal issues of the 2020s, affecting the care provided in SBHCs, have taken place over the past 4 years. These issues, which will be discussed in this article, include the following: 1. The COVID pandemic had a major impact on utilization and services required at SBHCs, both at the peak of the pandemic, when schools were closed and since the peak of the pandemic, when schools reopened. 2. The transformation of mental health services, due both to increasing mental health needs of youth, as well as progression to new therapeutic modalities, has required expansion of services provided at SBHCs. 3. New immigrant health care needs and services have required a response by SBHCs to the substantial increase of new immigrants, most of whom are impacted by significant trauma, entering public schools nationally. 4. Telehealth integration into SBHC medical and mental health services, and its expansion to incorporate new technologies, have provided avenues for increased provision of services by SBHCs.

Improving Health Equity and Outcomes for Children and Adolescents: The Role of School-Based Health Centers (SBHCs).

School-based health centers (SBHCs) provide a critical point of access to youth in low-resource communities. By providing a combination of primary care, reproductive health, mental health, vision, dental, and nutrition services, SBHCs improve the health, wellbeing, and academic achievement of the students they serve. SBHCs operate in collaboration with schools and community primary care providers to optimize the management of chronic health conditions and other health concerns that may result in suboptimal scholastic achievement and other quality of life measures. Conveniently located in or near school buildings and providing affordable, child- and adolescent-focused care, SBHCs reduce barriers to youth accessing high quality health care. SBHCs provide essential preventive care services such as comprehensive physical examinations and immunizations to students without a primary care provider, assist in the management of chronic health conditions such as asthma, and provide reproductive and sexual health services such as the provision of contraceptives, screening and treatment for sexually transmitted infections (STIs), and management of pregnancy. Additionally, some SBHCs provide vision screenings, dental care, and nutrition counseling to students who may not otherwise access these services. SBHCs have been demonstrated to be a cost-effective model of health care delivery, reducing both health care and societal costs related to illness, disability, and lost productivity.

Delivering Medicaid Mental Health Services and Supports in Schools: Current Landscape and Opportunities to Expand.

BACKGROUND: Medicaid is a key policy lever for expanding access to mental health services and supports for children in schools, especially low-income and minority children. This study examines how Medicaid finances mental health promotion and prevention (tier 1), screening and selected interventions (tier 2), and treatment (tier 3) in schools, informing policy recommendations to expand school mental health. METHODS: Seventeen key informant interviews were conducted virtually from March to October 2022 with research, practice, and policy leaders in school mental health and Medicaid. Interview transcripts were thematically coded to inform recommendations. RESULTS: Interview themes included that Medicaid is a key funder of mental health services, primarily in tier 3, and that braiding and blending funds is necessary to support services across all tiers in schools. Interviewees underscored the need to expand tier 2 in schools, to expand and diversify the behavioral health workforce (including via non-licensed providers, aligning school-employed provider licensure and billing requirements and building school-community referral relationships), strengthen teaming structures (including state children's cabinets, student case management, and education/Medicaid agency coordination), and leverage technical assistance and training to speed up adoption of new policies (including via guidance and templates that facilitate billing for school health services). CONCLUSIONS: Policymakers, practitioners, and advocates can use these findings to identify policies and strategies to expand school mental health and reduce inequities.

Expert school nurses' experiences of reopening schools during the COVID-19 pandemic: A qualitative study.

BACKGROUND: There is limited information about expert school nurses' experiences regarding the reopening of schools in the school setting during the COVID-19 pandemic. PURPOSE: This study aimed to explore the views and experiences of reopening schools among expert school nurses during the COVID-19 pandemic. METHODS: We conducted semi-structured interviews with five focus groups of 24 school nurses. A grounded theory methodology was used to analyze emergent concepts, categories, and themes. DISCUSSION: We identified five themes related to the experiences of expert school nurses during the COVID-19 pandemic: unprepared response system, fighting alone, centering the response system, redefining roles, and together against. CONCLUSION: Despite the high workload of school nurses during the COVID-19 pandemic, the expert school nurses led to clarification and expansion of the role of the school nurse role, and highlighted the relationships among school staff who were essential participants of the school health team during the pandemic. PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS: It is imperative to shift the perception that school nurses are health professionals who play key managerial roles with collaboration within and beyond the school.

A Mixed Methods Examination of Decision-Making During Program Exploration and Implementation in Schools.

Schools are a critical setting to promote healthy youth development through the provision of evidence-based programs (EBPs), yet preventive EBPs in schools are underutilized. The Exploration, Preparation, Implementation, Sustainment (EPIS) framework highlights numerous factors that may influence program adoption during the Exploration phase and progress monitoring during the Implementation phase. However, no research has systematically and simultaneously identified the factors that influence school administrators' decision-making during these important processes. We conducted semi-structured interviews with 24 school administrators in the Midwestern region of the U.S. to understand how they weigh various considerations that inform their adoption and progress monitoring of prevention programs. Results indicated that school administrators consider five separate factors during the adoption decision, prioritized in the following order: need for the program, school community buy-in, contextual fit, resources, and program characteristics (including the evidence-base). Further, administrators consider five indicators to monitor program performance, prioritized as follows: intervention fidelity, quantitative and qualitative data that determine if the identified need was met, school community buy-in, resource consumption, and program characteristics. Implications for prevention scientists and suggestions for future research are discussed.

School-Based Tele-Behavioral Health: A Scoping Review of the Literature.

BACKGROUND: Telehealth utilization exploded during the COVID-19 pandemic, including within school-based health programs. School-based tele-behavioral health can help programs overcome barriers of access to care, but the current state and effectiveness of such programs are unknown. METHODS: A scoping literature review was conducted. Studies were included if they described in-school behavioral health services delivered via telehealth for children ages 5 to 18. From the included studies, population, location, setting, intervention, telehealth modality, clinician type, and outcomes assessed were extracted. FINDINGS: Eighteen studies met inclusion criteria. All described psychotherapy or medication management delivered by psychologists (n = 7) and/or psychiatrists (n = 11). Treatment included psychotherapy (N = 8), psychiatric consultation (N = 7), medication management (N = 4), crisis stabilization (N = 1), and caregiver education (N = 1). Eight studies provide qualitative or quantitative outcomes, with 4 examining clinical effectiveness. CONCLUSIONS: Despite limited findings in the literature, school-based tele-behavioral health is feasible, effective, and acceptable for delivery of behavioral health care to children and adolescents.

Unmet Need for School-Based Substance Use Prevention Strategies Among Secondary Schools in Orlu, Imo State.

BACKGROUND: In Nigeria, the use of psychoactive substances has reached an epidemic proportion while substance use prevention remains inadequate or unavailable. METHODS: Cross-sectional data from 300 Junior Secondary School students in Imo state were analyzed to evaluate the unmet need for school-based substance use prevention strategies among secondary school students in Orlu, Imo state. Information was collected using a structured questionnaire. RESULTS: Substance use was common with easy access to psychoactive substances for young people. There was a perceived need for substance use prevention strategies in their school with most students lacking access to basic preventive strategies. CONCLUSION: Though there was a high need for preventive strategies for substance abuse among secondary school students in Orlu, few strategies were in place to meet the needs of the students.