Abnormalities detected on digital rectal examinations in dogs are common and influence diagnostic and treatment plans.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the frequency of abnormal findings on digital rectal examination (DRE) performed during physical examinations at a tertiary referral veterinary hospital, to establish what abnormal findings are most common and whether they impact diagnostic and treatment plans, and to assess whether patient signalment or admitting service influences the frequency of abnormalities. ANIMALS: Client-owned dogs (n = 440). METHODS: Veterinarians performed DREs on dogs as part of a physical examination. Patient signalment and DRE findings were recorded in a standardized survey. Findings were deemed normal or abnormal and described. Whether the findings changed the diagnostic or treatment plan was also recorded. RESULTS: Abnormalities were detected on DRE in 160 of 440 (36%) dogs. Changes to the diagnostic plan occurred in 41 of 160 (26%) cases when an abnormality was found. Changes to the treatment plan occurred in 20 of 160 (12.5%) cases when an abnormality was found. Age (P = .2), sex (P = .9), and breed (P = 1) did not significantly influence the frequency of abnormal findings. Abnormal findings were significantly more common in dogs presenting to the emergency service than elective services (P = .005). CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Among dogs presenting to a tertiary veterinary hospital, abnormalities found on DRE are common and change the diagnostic plan in 1 out of 4 dogs and treatment plan in 1 out of 8 dogs. This study supports the continued practice of DREs in dogs, especially in emergency settings, regardless of signalment.

Comparison of ultrasonography, progesterone assay, ballottement, and non-return-to-heat with digital rectal palpation technique for early pregnancy diagnosis in Red Sokoto goat.

The objective of the study was to evaluate the effectiveness of the digital rectal palpation (DRP) technique for early pregnancy diagnosis and to compare the results of experiments I and II in the Red Sokoto goat. Experiment I had 68 goats with 52 does and 16 bucks. Does were divided into prostaglandin F2 -alpha (PGF2 α; n = 18), progesterone pessaries (P4 P; n = 18), and Control (n = 16) groups as oestrus synchronizaton methods. Bucks were used for oestrus detection (n = 6) and breeding (n = 10). Comparative pregnancy diagnosis was carried out on day 21 post-breeding using ultrasonography (US), DRP, progesterone assay (PA), ballottement (BL), and non-return-to-heat (NRH). Experiment II was a repeat but had 51 animals with 42 does and nine bucks; three bucks for oestrus detection and six for breeding. Does were divided into recto-vaginal artificial insemination (AI) by DRP (n = 14), vaginal speculum AI (n = 14), and Control-natural service (n = 14) groups, indicating breeding methods. Oestrus was synchronized with PGF2 α and pregnancy diagnosis was carried out on day 21 using US, DRP, PA, and NRH. The results for both experiments were similar. Pregnancy rates for PGF2 α group were 66.2%, 66.7%, 64.8%, 62.1%, and 63.0% for US, DRP, PA, BL, and NRH, respectively; P4 P had 81.5%, 81.5%, 42.6%, 20.3%, and 42.6% for US, DRP, PA, BL, and NRH, respectively; while Control was 73.6%, 79.2%, 70.9%, 73.6%, and 73.6% for US, DRP, PA, BL, and NRH, respectively. Proportions are significantly (p < .000) different in the P4 P group. It was concluded that the DRP technique was effective and consistent in early pregnancy diagnosis on day 21 and comparable to US, PA, BL, and non-return-to-oestrus in both experiments in Red Sokoto goat does.

No adverse effect of confirmation of ovulation by rectal palpation and ultrasonography after artificial insemination on formation, development, and function of the corpus luteum and conception rate in cows.

The effect of confirmation of ovulation by rectal palpation and ultrasonography after artificial insemination (AI) on the development of the corpus luteum (CL) and conception rate was investigated in cows. A total of 90 clinically healthy Holstein-Friesian dairy cows were examined in this study. After AI, the cows were divided into three groups (30 cows per group). In Group I, ovulation was confirmed by rectal palpation at 24 h after AI. In Group II, ovulation was confirmed using transrectal ultrasonography 24 h after AI. In Group III, ovulation was not confirmed after AI. Day 0 was defined as the day when ovulation was confirmed in Groups I and II, and as the day after AI was performed in group III. Transrectal ultrasonography was performed on days 3, 5, 7, and 14 to measure the CL diameter, tissue area, and CL blood flow area, and the ratio of CL blood flow area to CL tissue area was calculated. On the day of CL measurement, blood samples were collected to determine the plasma concentrations of progesterone (P4) and estradiol-17ß (E2). Pregnancy was diagnosed at 28 and 60 days after AI. A high conception rate of approximately 80% was achieved in Groups I and II, in which confirmation of ovulation was conducted. There were no differences in the diameter, tissue area, or blood flow area of the CL between the three groups. These results indicate that the confirmation of ovulation by rectal palpation and transrectal ultrasonography did not affect the formation and function of the CL or conception rate.

The Use of Simulators for Teaching Practical Clinical Skills to Veterinary Students - A Review.

In the context of veterinary education, simulators are devices or sets of conditions aiming to imitate real patients and enable students to practice skills without the need for live animal use. Simulator use in veterinary education has increased significantly in recent years, allowing consistent practical teaching without reliance on clinical cases. This review examines the available literature regarding the use of simulation and simulators for teaching practical day one competences to veterinary students. Scientific databases were searched and 73 relevant articles were reviewed. The reviewed articles revealed that there are a number of simulators currently available to veterinary educators, that simulators can enhance student skills and provide an alternative learning environment without the need for live animal and/or cadaver use, and that they usually receive positive feedback from the students who use them. There appears to be a bias towards small animal simulators - however, some skills that are developed through the use of small animal or table-top models will be transferrable to other species. The majority of large animal simulators focus on bovine rectal palpation and/or pregnancy diagnosis. Further research is required to increase the repertoire of available simulators for use in veterinary education, in order to improve the practical skills of veterinary students and reduce the use of live animals and cadaver material for teaching purposes.

Ovary and ovarian bursa in dromedary camels: Clinical relevance of the topographical features.

This study aimed to associate ovarian characteristics with the efficiency of clinical examination and occurrence of genital diseases in dromedary camels. The reproductive tract of 870 female camels was examined through standard transrectal palpation and by ultrasonography during the breeding season. The ovaries were examined for structures and dimensions. The follicles were categorized according to size, the thickness of the wall and contents. Follicle aspiration was carried out from females with overgrown follicles (OVGF, n = 127), and the obtained follicular fluids were examined. At the slaughterhouse, 100 genital tracts were examined in situ and after dissection. Ovarian bursae were examined for patency and the presence of fluid (ovarian hydrobursitis, OVHB). Risks associated with the development of OVGF and OVHB were identified by the logistic regression. The results showed that, due to topographical difference, the right ovary was more accessible at rectal palpation than the left ovary (98.9% vs. 96.1%, p = .0005). Time needed for rectal palpation of the right ovary was shorter than the left ovary (25.1 ± 25 s vs. 34.6 ± 34.5 s, p = .03). Significant relationships were found between OVGF and OVHB (Odds ratio = 10.5, p = .001), OVGF and clinical endometritis (Odds ratio = 21.1, p = .001), OVGF and vaginal adhesion (Odds ratio = 4.4, p = .03), and OVHB and clinical endometritis (Odds ratio = 11.3, p = .001). Ultrasonographic examination was imperative for the differentiation between active corpus luteum, old non-active corpus luteum and small luteinized follicle. In conclusion, anatomical arrangement of the ovary and ovarian bursa in dromedary camels affects the likelihood of their accessibility during clinical examination and predisposes to unusual genital disorders.

Ability of a bovine transrectal palpation objective structured clinical examination to predict veterinary students' pregnancy diagnosis accuracy.

Bovine pregnancy diagnosis (PD) by transrectal palpation (TRP) is one of the most frequently performed procedures in bovine practice, and an important competency for veterinary graduates. It is currently not known if pre-existing TRP skills on non-pregnant cows can be used to predict students' future PD accuracy. The study objective was to evaluate if TRP objective structured clinical examination (OSCE) scores can predict students' future PD accuracy.Fourth year (of a six-year programme) veterinary students (n=128) received TRP and PD training on Breed'n Betsy (BB) simulators and live cows. Students' TRP skills were assessed using a live cow TRP OSCE after completion of the fourth year training. The same students received additional TRP (BB and live cows) and PD (BB) training sessions in the first semester of their fifth year. PD accuracy was assessed after the additional TRP and PD training, five months after the TRP OSCE assessment and measured as sensitivity and specificity (the ability to correctly identify the presence and absence of pregnancy, respectively). Each student palpated six cows transrectally to diagnose pregnancy status and stage for the PD assessment. The TRP OSCE results were analysed as predictors for students' PD accuracy.Students with 'competent palpation skills' on the TRP OSCE had higher PD specificity. The individual OSCE components that were predictive of higher PD accuracy were students' ability to estimate ovarian size, identify uterine position and exclude intrauterine fluid. It was concluded that a TRP OSCE has the ability to predict students' future PD accuracy.

Bovine Reproductive Palpation Training: Does the Cow Make a Difference?

Gaining experience and dexterity for trans-rectal cattle palpation requires substantial training. Simulation allows students to perform palpation without risks and to obtain feedback, but many believe live cattle palpation is essential. Limited research exists on the proper training method for live animal trans-rectal palpation. This study compared student improvement in laboratory palpation skills when assigned to the same cows versus choosing a cow at random. The hypothesis for the study was that students assigned the same cow, as compared to students choosing a cow at random, would be more accurate at palpation, would learn what structures are present on the ovaries and what size the reproductive tract measures, and would be able to follow the cyclicity of the cow. Cervical diameter, uterine tone, diameter of left and right uterine horns, and ovarian structures were recorded over time. Responses were compared to laboratory instructors' responses and Z-tests for proportions were used to test the differences in percentage correct at each time point for each palpation exercise. Overall the experiment showed that assigning students to certain cows will not improve their trans-rectal palpation training. However, asking students to identify specific landmarks with quantitative measurements did allow for more productive laboratory time and engaged students. The results of the present study also suggest that if there is limited time available for palpation instruction, choosing cows with behavior allowing easy handling is important to the educational process.

Training Method and Other Factors Affecting Student Accuracy in Bovine Pregnancy Diagnosis.

To optimize bovine pregnancy diagnosis (PD) training, factors influencing student performance were investigated. The objective was to determine whether training method, gender, background (farm, urban, or mixed), previous experience in bovine PD, and current career interest influenced the accuracy of bovine PD by trans-rectal palpation (TRP). Fourth-year (of a 6-year program) veterinary students (n=138) received one PD training session in groups using either simulator training on Breed'n Betsy (BB) or training on live cows (C). Students completed a questionnaire on gender, background, and career interest. Students' PD accuracy (pregnancy status and stage) was determined after training when each student palpated six cows with known pregnancy status. Students' accuracy in determining pregnancy status was measured as sensitivity and specificity (the ability to correctly identify the presence and absence of pregnancy respectively). Factors that influenced overall accuracy with a higher student sensitivity of bovine PD by TRP were training method, farming background, an interest in a mixed animal career, and stage of gestation. Gender of students and previous experience in bovine PD did not have an influence. Training on BB simulators was associated with lower student sensitivity for pregnancy detection in cows <6 months pregnant. Student sensitivity for pregnancy detection in cows >6 months pregnant was similar for training on BB simulators and live cows. No evaluated factors were significantly associated with specificity of PD. Teaching efforts focusing on specificity of PD and repeated simulator-based training in conjunction with live cow exposure are recommended.

Comparison between allantochorion membrane and amniotic sac detection by per rectal palpation for pregnancy diagnosis on pregnancy loss, calving rates, and abnormalities in newborn calves.

The objectives of the present investigation were to evaluate the pregnancy diagnosis by detection of either the allantochorion membrane (FMS) or amniotic sac (ASP) by per rectum palpation (PRP) during late embryonic or early fetal period on pregnancy loss (PRL) at reexamination, calving rates, and abnormalities in newborn calves. A controlled randomized blind design with 800 lactating dairy pregnant cows diagnosed by transrectal ultrasonography (TRUS) between Days 35 and 57 of gestation from one dairy farm were included. The cows were randomly divided according to detection of allantochorion membrane (FMS group; n = 264), detection of amniotic sac (ASP group; n = 266), and TRUS (control [CON] group; n = 270). TRUS was considered as the criterion standard method of comparison. The entire PRP was performed by one experienced veterinarian. Then, all the cows were reexamined only by TRUS between 2 and 4 weeks later by two independent veterinarians to assess PRL. The calving rate one (number of cows calved divided by the number of cows initially pregnant) and calving rate two (number of cows calved divided by the number of cows pregnant at reexamination) for each group was calculated. All abortions and stillborns were necropsied, and calves alive were followed for 5 days. The overall initial PRL (between initial pregnant cows and reexamination) for FMS, ASP, and CON groups was 7.4% (19/258), 8.8% (23/262), and 9.2% (24/260), respectively (P = 0.75). The overall late PRL (between reexamination and calving) for FMS, ASP, and CON groups was 4.2% (9/213), 5.7% (12/209), and 4.2% (9/216), respectively (P = 0.71). The calving rate one for FMS, ASP, and TRUS groups was 79.1% (204/258), 75.2% (197/262), and 79.6% (207/260), respectively (P = 0.63). The calving rate two for the same groups was 85.4% (204/239), 82.4% (197/239), and 87.7% (207/236), respectively (P = 0.27). The number of fetuses aborted late, premature, and mature dead from FMS, ASP, and CON groups was 6, 4, and 5, respectively (P = 0.85), and no abnormalities at necropsy were detected. One stillborn male calf with atresia coli after 281 days of gestation from a cow examined by ASP at Day 51 was diagnosed. It was concluded that the use of either FMS or ASP for pregnancy diagnosis during late embryonic or early fetal period did not increase the PRL, affect calving rates, or produce calves with congenital abnormalities.

Ultrasonographic diagnosis of early pregnancy in cattle using different ultrasound systems.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the efficiency of different ultrasound devices in achieving an early diagnosis of pregnancy in dairy herds. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A total of 1976 Holstein Friesian cows and heifers were artificially inseminated (AI) according to the herd manager's regime. Pregnancy diagnostics were performed between day 26 and 35 after AI using six different types of ultrasound systems (linear vs. sector scanners). Manual rectal palpation between day 45 and 60 after AI was used as the gold standard for pregnancy diagnostics. Sensitivity (SENS), specificity (SPEC), positive (PPV) and negative predictive value (NPV) and diagnostic accuracy (ACC) of the diagnostic measures were determined. RESULTS: Average SENS was 82% (range 67.7-95.2%) with a mean SPEC of 73% (range 50.0-81.0%). ACC was 78.2% with a minimum of 64.6% and a maximum of 89.4%, depending on the ultrasound system. The PPV (ratio of the number of pregnant cows with a positive examination result to the number of cows actually pregnant) was 80.8% (range 59.1-88.1%), whereas the NPV (defined as the ratio of the number of cows correctly diagnosed negative to the number of cows actually open) was 74.4% (72.3-91.9%). Significant differences for these parameters were found depending on the ultrasound system used (p ≤ 0.01; Cramer's V. = 0.14). CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Regardless of the ultrasound device used, early pregnancy diagnostics between day 26 and 35 show a moderate diagnostic efficiency. Comparing the accuracy of the different devices, there may be a significant influence of type and technical parameters. Even though ultrasound systems with mechanical sector probes are not as convenient to use as systems with linear probes, according to this study, sector scanners are a reasonable alternative.

Effect of early pregnancy diagnosis by per rectum amniotic sac palpation on pregnancy loss, calving rates, and abnormalities in newborn dairy calves.

The objectives of the present study were to evaluate the effect of per rectal amniotic sac palpation (ASP) for pregnancy diagnosis during the late embryonic period on pregnancy loss, calving rates, and abnormalities in newborn calves. A controlled, randomized, blocked, blind experiment containing 680 lactating pregnant dairy cows with a viable embryo diagnosed by transrectal ultrasonography was performed. Two dairy operation sites (farm A and farm B) were selected. At each farm, the cows were randomly divided into control (CON) and ASP groups. The CON group was not subjected to pregnancy diagnosis via per rectum palpation. The ASP examinations were performed by one experienced veterinarian between Days 34 and 45 after breeding. All cows were reevaluated by transrectal ultrasonography only between 2 and 4 weeks later. Two calving rates were calculated: calving rate 1 (cows that calved from the initial number of pregnant cows) and calving rate 2 (cows that calved from cows pregnant at reexamination). In farm A, the percentages of early pregnancy loss were 11.5% (19 of 165) and 13.2% (24 of 182) for the CON and the ASP groups, respectively (P = 0.64). In farm B, the percentage of early pregnancy loss was 11.2% (19 of 170) for the CON group and 8.8% (14 of 159; P = 0.48) for the ASP group. In farm A, the percentage of late pregnancy loss was 7.6% (11 of 145) for the CON group and 5.5% (8 of 155; P = 0.39) for the ASP group. In farm B, the percentage of late pregnancy loss was 3.7% (5 of 137) for the CON group and 6.3% (8 of 127; P = 0.32) for the ASP group. In farm A, early pregnancy loss was higher than late pregnancy loss (12.4% vs. 6.3%; P = 0.01), and in farm B, the same tendency was detected (10.0% vs. 4.9%, for early and late pregnancy loss, respectively; P = 0.02). In farm A, calving rate 1 was 81.2% (134 of 165) for the CON group and 80.8% (147 of 182; P = 0.92) for the ASP group. Calving rate 2 for the same groups was 92.4% (134 of 145) and 94.8% (147 of 155), respectively (P = 0.68). In farm B, calving rate 1 was 77.7% (132 of 170) for the CON group and 74.8% (119 of 159; P = 0.55) for the ASP group. Calving rates 2 for the same groups were 87.4% (132 of 151) and 82.1% (119 of 145), respectively (P = 0.20). Two female calves with atresia coli were diagnosed only in the CON group. It was concluded that ASP during the late embryonic period for pregnancy diagnosis did not increase the pregnancy loss, affect calving rates, or produce abnormalities in calves.

[Comparison of the findings of rectal examination and ultrasonographic findings in horses with colic]. / Vergleich rektaler und sonographischer Untersuchungsbefunde bei der Kolik des Pferdes.

OBJECTIVE: The examination of patients suffering from an acute abdomen routinely comprises both clinical and rectal examinations, and is ever more frequently accompanied by an ultrasonographic abdominal examination. The aim of the study was to compare the findings as defined through rectal examination with the results of the ultrasonographic examination for different forms of colic. MATERIAL AND METHODS: In a retrospective study, the patient records of the Large Animal Clinic of the University of Leipzig from 2012 and 2013 were analysed, and those of horses suffering from colic were included. Diagnoses made through rectal and ultrasonographic examination were grouped and compared with the diagnoses made during colic surgery or pathologic examination, which served as the gold standard. Horses that underwent conservative treatment had a definitive diagnosis assigned only in cases where a pathognostic rectal finding defined the diagnosis. Based on these data, sensitivity, specificity and positive and negative predictive values were calculated for both techniques. RESULTS: Ultrasonography was more sensitive than rectal examination in cases of small intestinal occlusion (97.1% vs. 50.7%), torsion of the large colon in the long axis (63.2% vs. 26.3%) and dislocation of the large colon into the nephrosplenic space (90.9% vs. 72.7%). Rectal examination was more sensitive than ultrasonographic examination in cases of other types of dislocation of the large colon (96.5% vs. 8.8%) and of constipations of the large colon (93.6% vs. 29.8%). CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: In cases of severe diseases, including small intestinal occlusions and torsions of the large colon, ultrasonography helps to better identify and more precisely diagnose conditions that in most cases require abdominal surgery than rectal examination. Therefore, under hospital conditions, it is highly advisable to include ultrasonography in the routine examination of the equine acute abdomen. However, this technique does not replace the traditional rectal examination, which is superior in the diagnosis of dislocations and constipations of the large colon as well as diseases of the caecum.

Stress Response of Veterinary Students to Gynaecological Examination of Horse Mares - Effects of Simulator-Based and Animal-Based Training.

Invasive procedures in animals are challenging for veterinary students who may perceive a gynaecological examination of mares as stressful. Simulator-based training may reduce stress. In this study, students received equine gynaecology training 4 times either on horses (group H; n = 14) or a teaching simulator (group SIM; n = 13). One day and 14 days thereafter, their diagnostic skills were tested on horses (skills tests 1 and 2). During the skills tests, the students' stress response was analysed by heart rate, heart rate variability (HRV) parameters SDRR (standard deviation of beat-to-beat [RR] interval) and RMSSD (root-mean-square of successive RR differences), and salivary cortisol. In addition, students answered a questionnaire on their perceived stress. Sympathetic activation with increased heart rate (p < 0.001) occurred in both skills tests. In test 1, this increase was more pronounced in SIM than in H students (time × group p < 0.01). HRV decreased in students of both groups (p < 0.001). In skills test 1, this decrease was more pronounced for SIM than for H students (between groups and time × group p < 0.01 for SDRR and p < 0.05 for RMSSD). High cortisol concentrations before the skills tests may indicate an anticipatory stress response. Subjective stress perception of students was higher in skills test 1 vs 2 (p < 0.01). In skills test 2, H students felt more stressed than SIM students (p < 0.01). Self-assessment thus differed from physiological stress parameters. In conclusion, gynaecological examination of mares evoked a moderate stress response in veterinary students, which was more evident after simulator-based than animal-based training.

Assessment of visceral pain associated with metritis in dairy cows.

Metritis is a common disease in dairy cattle, but to our knowledge, no work has assessed pain associated with this disease. Tissue palpation is commonly used to assess pain in human and veterinary medicine. The objective of this study was to evaluate visceral pain responses during rectal palpation, with and without uterine palpation, in healthy cows and in cows diagnosed with metritis. A total of 49 Holstein dairy cows (mean ± standard deviation parity of 2.8±1.8) were subjected to systematic health checks every 3 d after parturition for 21 d, scoring for vaginal discharge (0 to 4); 13 cows showed a discharge score ≥2 during at least 1 health check and were classified as metritic, whereas 29 cows were classified as healthy and showed no sign of this or any other disease (including mastitis and lameness). Back arch and heart rate variability before examination and during palpation were recorded using video and heart rate monitors. Back arch (cm(2)) on the day of diagnosis was greater in metritic versus healthy cows (1,034±72 vs. 612±48cm(2)), and greater during rectal palpation with uterine palpation versus rectal palpation without uterine palpation (869±45 vs. 777±45cm(2)). Heart rate frequency domain analysis showed that the low-frequency portion was higher in cows with metritis versus healthy cows (16.5±1.2 vs. 12.9±1.0). Time domain analysis showed that the standard deviation between normal to normal interbeat intervals and the root mean square of successive differences both decreased during rectal palpation with uterine palpation versus rectal palpation without uterine palpation (1.9±0.1 vs. 2.5±0.1 and 1.3±0.1 vs. 1.7±0.1, respectively). Together, these results indicate that the inflammation associated with metritis is painful, and that the pain response can be detected during rectal palpation with and without uterine palpation. Rectal palpation with uterine palpation appears to be more aversive than rectal palpation without uterine palpation, suggesting that the former should be avoided when possible.

Effects of early pregnancy diagnosis by per rectal palpation of the amniotic sac on pregnancy loss in dairy cattle.

OBJECTIVE: To determine effects of per rectal amniotic sac palpation (ASP) for pregnancy diagnosis during early gestation on pregnancy loss in lactating cows. DESIGN: Controlled, randomized block design. ANIMALS: 368 pregnant dairy cows. PROCEDURES: Pregnancy was detected via transrectal ultrasonography (TRUS) at day 29 (day of estrus = day 0), and cows were allocated into a control group (n = 167 cows) and ASP group (180). Control cows were not subjected to pregnancy diagnosis via palpation per rectum. Per rectal ASP was performed between days 34 and 43 by only 1 experienced veterinarian. All cows were reevaluated with TRUS on days 45, 60, and 90. RESULTS: 21 cows were removed because of illness. Pregnancy loss between days 29 and 90 occurred in 44 of 347 (12.7%) cows. Pregnancy loss for the control and ASP groups from days 29 to 90 occurred in 22 of 167 (13.2%) and 22 of 180 (12.2%) cows, respectively. Late embryonic pregnancy loss (days 29 to 45) for the control and ASP groups occurred in 18 (10.8%) and 15 (8.3%) cows, respectively. Early fetal pregnancy loss (days 46 to 60) for the control and ASP groups occurred in 2 of 149 (1.3%) and 6 of 165 (3.6%) cows, respectively, and late fetal pregnancy loss (days 61 to 90) for the same groups occurred in 2 of 147 (1.4%) and 1 of 159 (0.6%) cows, respectively. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Pregnancy diagnosis via per rectal ASP during early gestation did not increase pregnancy loss in dairy cattle.

Short communication: field evaluation of a pregnancy confirmation test using milk samples in dairy cows.

The objective was to validate the performance under field conditions of a novel commercially available ELISA for confirmation of pregnancy using measurement of pregnancy-associated glycoproteins in milk samples from dairy cows. The target population was cows previously diagnosed pregnant by veterinary examination and ≥ 60 d of gestation. On 8 farms milking Holstein cows, milk samples were collected during routine Dairy Herd Improvement testing and shipped overnight to the Dairy Herd Improvement laboratory where the milk pregnancy test was performed. On the same day that milk samples were collected, transrectal palpation was performed by a veterinarian to confirm pregnancy status. Data were available from 683 cows, of which 661 were pregnant and 22 were not pregnant based on veterinary diagnosis, which was taken as the reference test. Based on the manufacturer's interpretive guidelines, 3.8% of test results were classified as "recheck," between the cut-points for classification of pregnant and nonpregnant and were not used in the analysis. The milk pregnancy test performance (and 95% confidence intervals) for confirmation of pregnancy was sensitivity of 99.2% (98.2 to 99.7%) and specificity of 95.5% (78.2 to 99.2%). Given a prevalence of 97% pregnant cows in the sample, the positive predictive value of the milk test was 99.8% (99.1 to 99.96%) and the negative predictive value was 80.8% (61.3 to 90.9%). When used to confirm pregnancy status or detect fetal losses at ≥ 60 d gestation in cows previously diagnosed pregnant, the recommended action for cows with a milk pregnancy-associated glycoprotein test result of not pregnant is veterinary reexamination of the animal to confirm the presence or absence of a viable fetus before reinsemination or administration of prostaglandin.

Effects of compressive abdominal bandaging and transrectal palpation on intra-abdominal pressures in horses.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the effect of an abdominal support wrap and transrectal abdominal palpation on intra-abdominal pressures (IAPs) measured directly from the peritoneal space. DESIGN: Prospective, experimental study. SETTING: A university-based equine research facility. ANIMALS: Ten healthy adult horses, 5 males and 5 females. INTERVENTIONS: IAPs were measured through an intraperitoneal cannula zeroed at a height midway between the height of the tuber ishii and point of the shoulder. Triplicate measurements were obtained at rest, during transrectal palpation, after placement of an abdominal support wrap, and during transrectal palpation with the support wrap still in place. Simultaneous mean arterial pressures were obtained using a tail cuff and abdominal perfusion pressures were calculated using the measured IAP minus the measured mean arterial pressures. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Baseline direct pressure measurements were subatmospheric (-4.5 ± 3.0 cm H(2) O). IAPs were not significantly affected by transrectal palpation, but were significantly increased after placement of an abdominal support wrap (-1.19 ± 3.01 cm H(2) O; P = 0.01). Abdominal perfusion pressures were not significantly affected by either transrectal palpation or application of the support wrap. CONCLUSION: IAPs were significantly increased after application of an abdominal support wrap commonly used after exploratory laparotomy. Further investigations are warranted to determine the clinical implications of abdominal bandaging on IAP and its implications on postoperative complications including intra-abdominal hypertension. However, transrectal abdominal palpation likely does not contribute to abdominal hypertension in normal horses.

Evaluation of transrectal examination of cervical diameter by palpation in dairy cows.

The objective of the study was to evaluate the reliability of a manual assessment of cervical diameter through palpation. In an in vivo trial, 64 Holstein-Friesian cows between 2 and 5d in milk (DIM) and between 21 and 27 DIM were examined by transrectal palpation by 3 investigators. For calculation of sensitivity and specificity, ultrasound-generated measurements were used as reference standard; a cervix >7.5 cm was categorized as large. The Pearson coefficient of correlation between the results of the 3 investigators and ultrasound-generated measurements was moderate (r=0.71, 0.74, and 0.51). The estimates generated by palpation by the 3 different investigators did not differ and were similar to measurements obtained by ultrasound. The coefficient of variation (CV) between the investigators and ultrasound was high (20.9, 18.7, and 32.0%). The mean difference between the investigators and the ultrasound was 0.60 cm (95% confidence interval: -2.4 to 3.6). Sensitivity was 28.6, 42.9, and 42.9%, and specificity was 100, 96.2, and 92.6% for the ability of the 3 investigators, respectively, to detect the 7.5-cm cutoff by palpation. Overall sensitivity and specificity for all 3 investigators, considering ultrasound as the reference, were 37.5 and 96.2%, respectively. In vitro, 24 wooden cylinders were used to represent cervical diameter and to examine the reliability, as well as sensitivity and specificity, of manual assessment of different diameters. The Pearson coefficient of correlation between the results of the investigators (n=11) and the actual diameters of the cylinders was 0.78. The CV between the investigators and the cylinders was 27.8%. The variation in the results was greater for cylinders with a larger diameter (3.5-cm diameter: mean ± standard deviation = 2.6 ± 0.9 cm; 10.5-cm diameter: mean ± standard deviation = 13.2 ± 4.0 cm). The estimate obtained by palpation for the 7.5-cm cylinder was 7.4 ± 2.1cm. Sensitivity was 79.4% and specificity 92.5%. After training one group of investigators, sensitivity and specificity improved to 85.9 and 94.4%, respectively. Transrectal palpation of the cervical diameter shows moderate repeatability and correlation and high variation between the investigators and the reference standards. Variability increased with larger diameters.

A critical evaluation of diagnostic methods used to identify dairy cows with acute post-partum metritis in the current literature.

The overall objective of this study was to investigate how relevant research publications address the validity of diagnostic methods for acute puerperal metritis (APM) in dairy cows, a disease commonly treated with antibiotic drugs. Therefore, a literature search was conducted in Journal of Dairy Science, Theriogenology, Animal Reproduction Science and The Veterinary Journal utilizing the ScienceDirect database. The search revealed 259 articles addressing APM. After applying exclusion criteria, a total of 48 trials remained. It was determined whether the author gave a clear definition of APM, the time of diagnosis relative to calving, and the person who performed the diagnosis. Studies were checked for the presence of definitions of possible findings, thresholds, and test characteristics of the methods used. Overall 9 different diagnostic methods were employed. On average 2·5 ± 1·75 diagnostic methods were used in a study. References to support the use of the diagnostic methods were provided in 10 of 48 articles (20·8%). Vaginal discharge, transrectal palpation and rectal temperature were examined in 39, 22, and 21 of the studies, respectively. Thresholds for diagnostic tests and test characteristics were mentioned in 6 and 3 of the 48 articles, respectively. Based on this systematic review of 48 research papers the evidence supporting the use of the diagnostic methods to identify cows with APM has either been not reported or is weak. In conclusion, the reporting of the diagnostic methods to identify cows with APM needs to be improved and further high-quality research is necessary to improve diagnostic performance of the methods employed.

Accuracy of predicted calving dates in Holstein-Friesian dairy cows based on fetal ages estimated using manual rectal palpation.

AIM: To assess potential risk factors for differences between predicted and actual calving dates in Holstein-Friesian cows in seasonal calving dairy herds where predicted dates are based on fetal ages estimated using manual rectal palpation. METHODS: Accuracy of predicted calving dates was assessed in 10,487 Holstein-Friesian dairy cows that were diagnosed as pregnant and that subsequently calved in 108 seasonal calving dairy herds in Victoria and Tasmania, Australia. Of these cows, 9,214 (88%) were between approximately 7 and 18 weeks of gestation when diagnosed as pregnant. Potential risk factors for differences >10 days between predicted and actual calving dates were analysed using a multinomial logistic regression model. RESULTS: For all 10,487 cows, 8,444 (80.5%) calved within 10 days of the predicted calving date, 1,329 (12.7%) calved >10 days earlier than predicted and 714 (6.8%) calved >10 days later than predicted. Estimation of fetal age was less accurate where cows had received no compared with one artificial insemination (AI), when cows were <8 weeks of gestation or >14 weeks of gestation, and when cows were examined ≥15 compared with <15 weeks after their most recent AI. The risk of calving >10 days earlier than predicted was reduced in cows with an interval of ≥3 weeks, compared with <1 week, between their most recent AI and the end of the herd's AI period. CONCLUSIONS: Important proportions of Holstein-Friesian dairy cows will calve >10 days from predicted dates based on manual rectal palpation assisted by AI dates. Risk factors for such differences include number of prior AI, fetal age at pregnancy diagnosis, and times from the cow's most recent AI to both pregnancy diagnosis and end of the herd's AI period. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Herd managers should be made aware of likely proportions of Holstein-Friesian dairy cows that will calve >10 days from predicted dates. If accurate predictions of calving dates are required, manual rectal pregnancy diagnosis in seasonal calving dairy herds should be scheduled to ensure that most cows are examined within 15 weeks after their most recent AI. Accuracy of estimates is reduced for cows with no AI, and for cows most recently inseminated close to the end of the herd's AI period.