A review on the upstream production and downstream purification of mannosylerythritol lipids.

Biosurfactants are natural compounds with remarkable surface-active properties that may offer an eco-friendly alternative to conventional surfactants. Among them, mannosylerythritol lipids (MELs) stand out as an intriguing example of a glycolipid biosurfactant. MELs have been used in a variety of sectors for various applications, and are currently commercially produced. Industrially, they are used in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, food, and agricultural industries, based on their ability to reduce surface tension and enhance emulsification. However, despite their utility, their production is comparatively limited industrially. From a bioprocessing standpoint, two areas of interest to improve the production process are upstream production and downstream (separation and purification) product recovery. The former has seen a significant amount of research, with researchers investigating several production factors: the microbial species or strain employed, the producing media composition, and the production strategy implemented. Improvement and optimization of these are key to scale-up the production of MELs. On the other hand, the latter has seen comparatively limited work presented in the literature. For the most part traditional separation techniques have been employed. This systematic review presents the production and purification methodologies used by researchers by comprehensively analyzing the current state-of-the-art with regards the production, separation, and purification of MELs. By doing so, the review presents different possible approaches, and highlights some potential areas for future work by identifying opportunities for the commercialization of MELs.

Structure-function relationship of licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) root extract-xanthan/guar gum mixture in a high sugar content system.

BACKGROUND: Foam-gels are one of the most important multicomponent-model systems in aerated confectionery, and an investigation of their microstructure is desirable. In this research, the structure-function relationship of xanthan gum/guar gum (XG/GG) and licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) root extract powder (LEP) was investigated in a high-sugar medium. Foam-gel systems were prepared at 4:10% to 8:20% ratios of LEP to biopolymer. RESULTS: The results show that increasing the LEP content reduced both the melting point and enthalpy, probably due to higher overrun and weaker junctions. Boosting the XG/GG ratio led the enhancement of mechanical properties, whereas increasing the LEP concentration weakened all textural parameters, which could be due to the poor structure of the network in the presence of the foaming agent, increased moisture content and overrun. In the whipped mixture samples containing 10 g kg-1 XG/GG, higher foaming capacity was observed. By increasing the level of biopolymers, smaller and more uniform air cells were formed according to a scanning electron microscopical study. At higher concentration of LEP, smaller bubbles and increased porosity were seen, which could be attributed to the availability of surfactant in the interfacial layer. CONCLUSION: Maximum structural strength was achieved at a 4:20 ratio of LEP to XG/GG. In rheological experiments, pseudoplastic behavior was seen in all samples. Generally, this model system can be simulated for other herbal extracts containing natural surfactants such as saponins. Achieving a more detailed understanding of these structures and their interactions could help in formulating novel food products. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

Biosurfactant production by halophilic yeasts isolated from extreme environments in Botswana.

Nine morphologically distinct halophilic yeasts were isolated from Makgadikgadi and Sua pans, as pristine and extreme environments in Botswana. Screening for biosurfactant production showed that Rhodotorula mucilaginosa SP6 and Debaryomyces hansenii MK9 exhibited the highest biosurfactant activity using Xanthocercis zambesiaca seed powder as a novel and alternative inexpensive carbon substrate. Chemical characterization of the purified biosurfactants by Fourier Transform Infra-Red spectroscopy suggested that the biosurfactant from R. mucilaginosa SP6 was a rhamnolipid-type whereas the biosurfactant from D. hansenii MK9 was a sophorolipid-type. The two biosurfactants exhibited antimicrobial activities against eight pathogenic bacteria and fungal strains (Proteus vulgaris, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus, Micrococcus luteus, Cryptococcus neoformans, Candida albicans and Aspergilus niger). The sophorolopid-type biosurfactant was found to be the most potent among the antimicrobial drug resistant strains tested. The findings open up prospects for the development of environmentally friendly antimicrobial drugs that use an inexpensive source of carbon to reduce the costs associated with the production of biosurfactants.

The development and qualification of liquid adsorption chromatography for poloxamer 188 characterization.

Poloxamer 188 (P188) is formulated in proteinaceous therapeutics as an alternative surfactant to polysorbate because of its good chemical stability and surfactant properties, which enable interfacial protection, preventing visible and sub-visible particle formation. However, due to the nature of polymer heterogeneity and limited analytical approaches to resolve the superimposed components of P188, the impact of its quality variance on protein stability is still not well understood. In this study, we developed an analytical method to evaluate the components of P188 as a function of the length of polypropylene oxide (PPO), by maintaining polyethylene oxide (PEO) at the critical point of adsorption (CPA) to eliminate its chromatographic interference. The effectiveness of the separation was confirmed by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and mass spectroscopy (MS) of the individual fractions corresponding to each peak. Additionally, a design of experiments (DoE) and method qualification were carried out to identify and optimize the key operation parameters, including column temperature and evaporative light scattering detector (ELSD) settings that need to be strictly controlled for reliable analytical results. In conclusion, this method is sensitive and reliable to compare the quality variance of commercial P188 and is suitable for routine quality control purposes. The application of this method could help in further understanding the Critical Material Attributes (CMA) that may affect the quality attributes of proteins in formulations.

Coating function and stabilizing effects of surface layer protein from Lactobacillus acidophilus ATCC 4356 on liposomes.

Surface layer proteins (SLPs) are crystalline arrays in the outermost layer of cell envelope in many archaea and bacteria. SLPs subunits have the ability to reassemble on the surface of lipid layers. In this work, the SLP from Lactobacillus acidophilus ATCC 4356 was extracted and reassembled on the surface of positively charged liposomes composed of dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine, cholesterol and octadecylamine. Zeta potentials and particle size were determined to describe the adsorption process of SLP on liposomes. The liposomes completely coated with SLP were observed by transmission electron microscope. To investigate the stabilizing effects of SLP on liposomes, carboxyfluorescein (CF) was encapsulated and its leakage was determined as an evaluation index. The results showed that the L. acidophilus ATCC 4356 SLP significantly (P < 0.05) increased the stability of the liposomes in the course of thermal challenge. Furthermore, SLP was able to reduce the aggregation of liposomes in serum. Storage stability of liposomes was performed at 25 °C, 4 °C and -20 °C for 90 days. And the SLP-coated liposomes released less CF than the control liposomes during storage at the three evaluated temperatures. Our findings extended the application field of Lactobacillus SLPs and introduced a novel nanocarrier system with good chemical stability.

Marine Microbial-Derived Antibiotics and Biosurfactants as Potential New Agents against Catheter-Associated Urinary Tract Infections.

Catheter-associated urinary tract infections (CAUTIs) are among the leading nosocomial infections in the world and have led to the extensive study of various strategies to prevent infection. However, despite an abundance of anti-infection materials having been studied over the last forty-five years, only a few types have come into clinical use, providing an insignificant reduction in CAUTIs. In recent decades, marine resources have emerged as an unexplored area of opportunity offering huge potential in discovering novel bioactive materials to combat human diseases. Some of these materials, such as antimicrobial compounds and biosurfactants synthesized by marine microorganisms, exhibit potent antimicrobial, antiadhesive and antibiofilm activity against a broad spectrum of uropathogens (including multidrug-resistant pathogens) that could be potentially used in urinary catheters to eradicate CAUTIs. This paper summarizes information on the most relevant materials that have been obtained from marine-derived microorganisms over the last decade and discusses their potential as new agents against CAUTIs, providing a prospective proposal for researchers.

Seeking faster, alternative methods for glycolipid biosurfactant characterization and purification.

Biosurfactants have been investigated as potential alternatives for synthetic surfactants in several areas, for example, in environmental and pharmaceutical fields. In that regard, extensive research has been carried out with sophorolipids and rhamnolipids that also present various biological properties with therapeutic significance. These biosurfactants are obtained as complex mixtures of slightly different molecules, and thus when studying these microbial glycolipids, the ability to identify and purify the produced compounds is of extreme importance. This study aimed to develop improved methodologies for the identification, separation, and purification of sophorolipids and rhamnolipids. Therefore, an ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) method was modified to ensure faster characterization of both sophorolipids and rhamnolipids, enabling the identification and fragmentation pattern description of 10 and 13 congeners, respectively. The separation and purification of these biosurfactants was achieved with novel reversed-phase solid-phase extraction methods guaranteeing the isolation of different glycolipids, including those considered for their significant biological activity (e.g. antimicrobial, anticancer). It was possible to isolate sophorolipids and rhamnolipids with purity of 94% and 99%, respectively. The methods presented herein can be easily implemented and are expected to make purification of these biosurfactants easier, facilitating the study of their individual properties in further works.

Toxicity Profiling of Biosurfactants Produced by Novel Marine Bacterial Strains.

Surface active agents (SAAs), currently used in modern industry, are synthetic chemicals produced from non-renewable sources, with potential toxic impacts on humans and the environment. Thus, there is an increased interest for the identification and utilization of natural derived SAAs. As such, the marine environment is considered a promising source of biosurfactants with low toxicity, environmental compatibility, and biodegradation compared to their synthetic counterparts. MARISURF is a Horizon 2020 EU-funded project aiming to identify and functionally characterize SAAs, derived from a unique marine bacterial collection, towards commercial exploitation. Specifically, rhamnolipids produced by Marinobacter MCTG107b and Pseudomonas MCTG214(3b1) strains were previously identified and characterized while currently their toxicity profile was assessed by utilizing well-established methodologies. Our results showed a lack of cytotoxicity in in vitro models of human skin and liver as indicated by alamar blue and propidium iodide assays. Additionally, the use of the single gel electrophoresis assay, under oxidative stress conditions, revealed absence of any significant mutagenic/anti-mutagenic potential. Finally, both 2,2'-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonicacid) (ABTS) and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical (DPPH) cell-free assays, revealed no significant anti-oxidant capacity for neither of the tested compounds. Consequently, the absence of significant cytotoxicity and/or mutagenicity justifies their commercial exploitation and potential development into industrial end-user applications as natural and environmentally friendly biosurfactants.

Biosurfactant from endophytic Bacillus pumilus 2A: physicochemical characterization, production and optimization and potential for plant growth promotion.

BACKGROUND: Microbial surfactants called biosurfactants, thanks to their high biodegradability, low toxicity and stability can be used not only in bioremediation and oil processing, but also in the food and cosmetic industries, and even in medicine. However, the high production costs of microbial surfactants and low efficiency limit their large-scale production. This requires optimization of management conditions, including the possibility of using waste as a carbon source, such as food processing by-products. This papers describes the production and characterization of the biosurfactant obtained from the endophytic bacterial strain Bacillus pumilus 2A grown on various by-products of food processing and its potential applications in supporting plant growth. Four different carbon and nitrogen sources, pH, inoculum concentration and temperature were optimized within Taguchi method. RESULTS: Optimization of bioprocess within Taguchi method and experimental analysis revealed that the optimal conditions for biosurfactant production were brewer's spent grain (5% w/v), ammonium nitrate (1% w/v), pH of 6, 5% of inoculum, and temperature at 30 °C, leading to 6.8 g/L of biosurfactant. Based on gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysis produced biosurfactant was determined as glycolipid. Obtained biosurfactant has shown high and long term thermostability, surface tension of 47.7 mN/m, oil displacement of 8 cm and the emulsion index of 69.11%. The examined glycolipid, used in a concentration of 0.2% significantly enhanced growth of Phaseolus vulgaris L. (bean), Raphanus L. (radish), Beta vulgaris L. (beetroot). CONCLUSIONS: The endophytic Bacillus pumilus 2A produce glycolipid biosurfactant with high and long tem thermostability, what makes it useful for many purposes including food processing. The use of brewer's spent grain as the sole carbon source makes the production of biosurfactants profitable, and from an environmental point of view, it is an environmentally friendly way to remove food processing by products. Glycolipid produced by endophytic Bacillus pumilus 2A significantly improve growth of Phaseolus vulgaris L. (bean), Raphanus L. (radish), Beta vulgaris L. (beetroot). Obtained results provide new insight to the possible use of glycolipids as plant growth promoting agents.

Purification and identification of a surfactin biosurfactant and engine oil degradation by Bacillus velezensis KLP2016.

Engine oil used in automobiles is a threat to soil and water due to the recalcitrant properties of its hydrocarbons. It pollutes surrounding environment which affects both flora and fauna. Microbes can degrade hydrocarbons containing engine oil and utilize it as a substrate for their growth. Our results demonstrated that cell-free broth of Bacillus velezensis KLP2016 (Gram + ve, endospore forming; Accession number KY214239) recorded an emulsification index (E24%) from 52.3% to 65.7% against different organic solvents, such as benzene, pentane, cyclohexane, xylene, n-hexane, toluene and engine oil. The surface tension of the cell-free broth of B. velezensis grown in Luria-Bertani broth at 35 °C decreased from 55 to 40 mN m-1at critical micelle concentration 17.2 µg/mL. The active biosurfactant molecule of cell-free broth of Bacillus velezensis KLP2016 was purified by Dietheylaminoethyl-cellulose and size exclusion chromatography, followed by HPLC (RT = 1.130), UV-vis spectrophotometry (210 nm) and thin layer chromatography (Rf = 0.90). The molecular weight of purified biosurfactant was found to be ~ 1.0 kDa, based on Electron Spray Ionization-MS. A concentration of 1980 × 10-2 parts per million of CO2 was trapped in a KOH solution after 15 days of incubation in Luria-Bertani broth containing 1% engine oil. Our results suggest that bacterium Bacillus velezensis KLP2016 may promise a new dimension to solving the engine oil pollution problem in near future.

Separation and determination of alkyl sulfate surfactants in wastewater by capillary electrophoresis coupled with contactless conductivity detection after preconcentration by simultaneous adsorption using alumina beads.

The aim of the present study is to determine four anionic alkyl sulfate (AS) surfactants with different alkyl chains, namely, C8, C10, C12, and C14, in wastewater by CE with capacitively coupled contactless conductivity detection (CE-C4 D). The conditions effective for the separation of the four AS surfactants were systematically optimized and found to be in a Tris-His (50 mM/20 mM) BGE solution at a pH of 8.95, using a separation voltage of +15 kV, hydrodynamic injection by siphoning using a 20 cm injection height and an injection time of 20 s. The LODs for C8, C10, C12, and C14 were 2.58, 2.30, 2.08, and 3.16 mg/L, respectively. The conditions used to achieve the simultaneous adsorption and preconcentration of the AS surfactants using Al2 O3 beads were pH of 3 and 0.1 mM NaCl. The adsorption efficiencies were found to be 45.6, 50.8, 81.7, and 99.9%, while the desorption efficiencies reached 66.1, 70.4, 83.9, and 100.0% for C8, C10, C12, and C14, respectively. The concentrations of the AS surfactants in wastewater samples were quantified by CE-C4 D after preconcentration by simultaneous adsorption using Al2 O3 beads. The results obtained from the proposed method were consistent with those obtained by HPLC-MS/MS, with a deviation of less than 15%. Our results indicate that the CE-C4 D performed after preconcentration by an adsorption technique using Al2 O3 beads is a new, inexpensive, and suitable method for quantifying AS surfactants in wastewater samples.

Characterization of low-cost glycolipoprotein biosurfactant produced by Lactobacillus plantarum 60 FHE isolated from cheese samples using food wastes through response surface methodology and its potential as antimicrobial, antiviral, and anticancer activities.

Considering the need of new lactic acid bacteria (LAB) for the production of novel biosurfactant (BS) molecules, the current study brings out a new insight on the exploration of cheese samples for BS producers and process optimization for industrial applications. In view of this, Lactobacillus plantarum 60FHE, Lactobacillus paracasei 75FHE, and Lactobacillus paracasei 77FHE were selected as the most operative strains. The biosurfactants (BSs) described as glycolipoproteins via Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) exhibited antimicrobial activity against the food-borne pathogens. L. plantarum 60FHE BS showed an anticancer activity against colon carcinoma cells and had a week antiviral activity against Hepatitis A virus. Furthermore, glycolipoprotein production was enhanced by 1.42-fold through the development of an optimized process using central composite design (CCD). Emulsifying activities were stable after 60-min incubation from 4 to 120 °C, at pH 2-12, and after the addition of NaCl (2-14%). Characterization by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H NMR) revealed that BS produced from strain 60FHE was glycolipoprotein. L. plantarum produced mixed BSs determined by Liquid Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS). Thus, indicating that BS was applied as a microbial food prevention and biomedical. Also, L. plantarum 60FHE BS was achieved with the use of statistical optimization on inexpensive food wastes.

Exploring the potential of chitosan-based particles as delivery-carriers for promising antimicrobial glycolipid biosurfactants.

Driven by the need to find alternatives to control Staphylococcus aureus infections, this work describes the development of chitosan-based particulate systems as carriers for antimicrobial glycolipids. By using a simple ionic gelation method stable nanoparticles were obtained showing an encapsulation efficiency of 41.1 ± 8.8 % and 74.2 ± 1.3 % and an average size of 210.0 ± 15.7 nm and 329.6 ± 8.0 nm for sophorolipids and rhamnolipids chitosan-nanoparticles, respectively. Glycolipids incorporation and particle size was correspondingly corroborated by FTIR-ATR and TEM analysis. Rhamnolipids chitosan nanoparticles (RLs-CSp) presented the highest antimicrobial effect towards S. aureus (ATCC 25923) exhibiting a minimal inhibitory concentration of 130 µg/mL and a biofilm inhibition ability of 99 %. Additionally, RLs-CSp did not interfere with human dermal fibroblasts (AG22719) viability and proliferation under the tested conditions. The results revealed that the RLs-CSp were able to inhibit bacterial growth showing adequate cytocompatibility and might become, after additional studies, a valuable approach to prevent S. aureus related infections.

Optimized pulsed electric field-assisted extraction of biosurfactants from Chubak (Acanthophyllum squarrosum) root and application in ice cream.

BACKGROUND: In this study, a face-centered central composite design was applied to optimize pulsed electric field parameters (voltage: 1, 4, 7 kV cm-1 ; pulse number: 10, 65, 120) for the extraction of natural saponins from Chubak root. Data analysis showed that increasing the voltage from 1 to 4 kV cm-1 and pulse number from 10 to 65 increased foaming ability (FA) and emulsion stability, and decreased foam density (FD), foam stability (FS) and lightness, due to the improved extraction of saponins. RESULTS: Whereas, an opposite trend was observed for FA, FD and FS on increasing the voltage from 4 to 7 kV cm-1 as a result of more impurities being extracted. Furthermore, the Chubak root extract (CRE) (0, 1.5, 3.0 and 4.5 g kg-1 ) obtained under the optimized conditions (voltage of 6.4 kV cm-1 and pulse number of 80) was used in ice cream formulation because of its ability to reduce surface tension. Based on the results, the samples containing higher amounts of CRE showed higher viscosity, consistency coefficient, overrun, melting resistance and creaminess, as well as lower values of flow behavior index, hardness, adhesiveness, coarseness and coldness. This could be related to the increased water retention, improved whipping ability, greater fat destabilization and smaller ice crystals. Although more bitterness was perceived as a result of an increase in the level of CRE, it had no negative effect on the overall acceptance assessed by trained sensory panelists. CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study briefly support the conclusion that CRE has a very high potential for use as a foaming, emulsifying and stabilizing agent to improve the quality of ice cream. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

Formulation of Creams Containing Spirulina Platensis Powder with Different Nonionic Surfactants for the Treatment of Acne Vulgaris.

Natural products used in the treatment of acne vulgaris may be promising alternative therapies with fewer side effects and without antibiotic resistance. The objective of this study was to formulate creams containing Spirulina (Arthrospira) platensis to be used in acne therapy. Spirulina platensis belongs to the group of micro algae and contains valuable active ingredients. The aim was to select the appropriate nonionic surfactants for the formulations in order to enhance the diffusion of the active substance and to certify the antioxidant and antibacterial activity of Spirulina platensis-containing creams. Lyophilized Spirulina platensis powder (SPP) was dissolved in Transcutol HP (TC) and different types of nonionic surfactants (Polysorbate 60 (P60), Cremophor A6:A25 (CR) (1:1), Tefose 63 (TFS), or sucrose ester SP 70 (SP70)) were incorporated in creams as emulsifying agents. The drug release was evaluated by the Franz diffusion method and biocompatibility was tested on HaCaT cells. In vitro antioxidant assays were also performed, and superoxide dismutase (SOD) and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assays were executed. Antimicrobial activities of the selected compositions were checked against Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and Cutibacteriumacnes (C. acnes) (formerly Propionibacterium acnes) with the broth microdilution method. Formulations containing SP 70 surfactant with TC showed the most favorable dissolution profiles and were found to be nontoxic. This composition also showed significant increase in free radical scavenger activity compared to the blank sample and the highest SOD enzyme activity was also detected after treatment with the cream samples. In antibacterial studies, significant differences were observed between the treated and control groups after an incubation time of 6 h.

Effects of Monoacyltrehalose Fraction of Rhodococcus Biosurfactant on the Innate and Adaptive Immunity Parameters In Vivo.

The biosurfactant monoacyltrehalose fraction isolated from Rhodococcus ruber IEGM 231 actinobacterium suppresses antibody production, bactericidal potential, and production of IL-1ß by mouse peritoneal cells after intraperitoneal and intramuscular injection and stimulates the production of IL-10 after intraperitoneal injection. The data of in vitro experiments attest to an important role of bacterial glycolipids in the regulation of the functions of splenocytes and peritoneal macrophages.

Biochemical characterization of a surfactant-stable keratinase purified from Proteus vulgaris EMB-14 grown on low-cost feather meal.

OBJECTIVES: The bioaccumulation of keratinous wastes from poultry and dairy industries poses a danger of instability to the biosphere due to resistance to common proteolysis and as such, microbial- and enzyme-mediated biodegradation are discussed. RESULTS: In submerged fermentation medium, Proteus vulgaris EMB-14 utilized and efficiently degraded feather, fur and scales by secreting exogenous keratinase. The keratinase was purified 14-fold as a monomeric 49 kDa by DEAE-Sephadex A-50 anion exchange and Sephadex G-100 size-exclusion chromatography. It exhibited optimum activity at pH 9.0 and 60 °C and was alkaline thermostable (pH 7.0-11.0), retaining 87% of initial activity after 1 h pre-incubation at 60 °C. The Km and Vmax of the keratinase with keratin azure were respectively 0.283 mg/mL and 0.241 U/mL/min. Activity of P. vulgaris keratinase was stimulated by Ca2+, Mg2+, Zn2+, Na+ and maintained in the presence of some denaturing agents, except ß-mercaptoethanol while Cu2+ and Pb2+ showed competitive and non-competitive inhibition with Ki 6.5 mM and 17.5 mM, respectively. CONCLUSION: This purified P. vulgaris keratinase could be surveyed for the biotechnological transformation of bioorganic keratinous wastes into valuable products such as soluble peptides, cosmetics and biodegradable thermoplastics.

Production and investigation of the physico-chemical properties of MEL-A from glycerol and coconut water.

This work reports the production of MEL-A using coconut water as the carbon source. Proximate analysis of coconut water indicated the presence of nutrients necessary for growth of the organism and production of desired metabolite. The amount of MEL produced using coconut water was 3.85 g/L (± 0.35) with 74% of it being MEL-A when compared to 2.58 g/L (± 0.15) with 60% being MEL-A using glycerol, a conventional carbon source. MEL-A from coconut water consisted of 38.1% long-chain saturated fatty acids (C16:0 and C18:0) whereas with glycerol it was 9.6%. The critical micellar concentration of the biosurfactant from coconut water was 2.32 ± 0.21 µM when compared to 4.41 ± 0.25 µM from glycerol. The stability of O/W emulsion was reduced by 50% and 90% after incubation for 8 h in the case of MEL-A from coconut water and glycerol respectively when compared to synthetic surfactant, Tween-20. MEL-A from both the sources exhibited free radical scavenging activity (DPPH assay) in a dose-dependent manner wherein MEL-A from coconut water showed two fold higher activity than the other. The interaction of coconut water MEL-A with DPPC for drug encapsulation applications was also studied. The DSC measurements showed the differences in the interaction of drugs with DPPC/MEL-A liposome. The differences were also observed in the solubility of drugs after encapsulation with DPPC/MEL-A liposome.

Production of Mannosylerythritol Lipids (MELs) to be Used as Antimicrobial Agents Against S. aureus ATCC 6538.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a current major health issue, both for the high rates of resistance observed in bacteria that cause common infections and for the complexity of the consequences of AMR. Pathogens like Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Mycobacterium tuberculosis among others are clear examples of antibiotic-resistant threats. Biosurfactants have recently emerged as a potential new generation of anti-adhesive and anti-biofilm agents; mannosylerythritol lipids (MELs) are biosurfactants produced by a range of fungi. A range of structural variants of MELs can be formed and the proportion of each isomer in the fermentation depends on the yeast used, the carbon substrate used for growth and the duration of the fermentation. In order to allow assessment of the possible functions of MELs as antimicrobial molecules, small quantities of MEL were produced by controlled fermentation. Fermentations of the yeast Pseudozyma aphidis using rapeseed oil as a carbon source yielded up to 165 gMELs/kgSubstrate. The MELs formed by this strain was a mixture of MEL-A, MEL-B, MEL-C and MEL-D. The MELs produced were tested against S. aureus ATCC 6538 on pre-formed biofilm and on co-incubation biofilm experiments on silicone discs; showing a disruption of biomass, reduction of the biofilm metabolic activity and a bacteriostatic/bactericidal effect confirmed by a release of oxygen uptake [Formula: see text], the reduction of citrate synthase activity and scanning electron microscopy. The results show that MELs are promising antimicrobial molecules for biomedical technological applications that could be studied in detail in large-scale systems and in conjunction with animal tissue models.

Lactobacillus plantarum-derived biosurfactant: Ultrasound-induced production and characterization.

The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of ultrasonic treatment (25 kHz) on biosurfactant production by Lactobacillus plantarum ATCC 8014. The impacts of the ultrasonication (with a frequency of 25 kHz and power of 7.4 W for 30 min time duration) were examined at different stages of the fermentation process to obtain the optimum stimulation instant(s). The optimum scenario was found to be one-time sonication at the 12th hour of fermentation which can be beneficial from an economic point of view (compared with multiple applications of sonication). Ultrasonic treatment at this time resulted in enhancement of the productivities of biomass (4.5 g/L) and biosurfactant (2.01 g/L) which was almost 1.3 times higher than those of the non-sonicated control samples. According to our results, it was clearly observed that glucose consumption increased after ultrasonic treatment representing the improved substrate uptake and progression of the cellular metabolism. Furthermore, the transmission electron microscopic images immediately after sonication clarified the pore formation on the cell surfaces. The results also indicated the enhancement of plasma membrane permeability of the sonicated cells. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy analyses also disclosed respectively no structural differences before and after ultrasonic exposure in the produced biosurfactant and bacterial cell membrane. The biosurfactant was characterized to be a mixture of carbohydrate (28%), protein (23%) and lipid (specified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry) known as glycolipoprotein. The sustainable critical micelle concentration and the stability of the synthesized biosurfactant can feature its potential applicability in various processes in the food and pharmaceutical industries.