Epidemiological and Genomic analysis of Vibrio parahaemolyticus isolated from imported travelers at the port of Shanghai, China (2017-2019).

BACKGROUND: Vibrio parahaemolyticus is the predominant etiological agent of seafood-associated foodborne illnesses on a global scale. It is essential to elucidate the mechanisms by which this pathogen disseminates. Given the existing research predominantly concentrates on localized outbreaks, there is a pressing necessity for a comprehensive investigation to capture strains of V. parahaemolyticus cross borders. RESULTS: This study examined the frequency and genetic attributes of imported V. parahaemolyticus strains among travelers entering Shanghai Port, China, between 2017 and 2019.Through the collection of 21 strains from diverse countries and regions, Southeast Asia was pinpointed as a significant source for the emergence of V. parahaemolyticus. Phylogenetic analysis revealed clear delineation between strains originating from human and environmental sources, emphasizing that underlying genome data of foodborne pathogens is essential for environmental monitoring, food safety and early diagnosis of diseases. Furthermore, our study identified the presence of virulence genes (tdh and tlh) and approximately 120 antibiotic resistance-related genes in the majority of isolates, highlighting their crucial involvement in the pathogenesis of V. parahaemolyticus. CONCLUSIONS: This research enhanced our comprehension of the worldwide transmission of V. parahaemolyticus and its antimicrobial resistance patterns. The findings have important implications for public health interventions and antimicrobial stewardship strategies, underscoring the necessity for epidemiological surveillance of pathogen at international travel hubs.

Tracking Vibrio: population dynamics and ecology of Vibrio parahaemolyticus and V. vulnificus in an Alabama estuary.

Vibrio is a genus of halophilic, gram-negative bacteria found in estuaries around the globe. Integral parts of coastal cultures often involve contact with vectors of pathogenic Vibrio spp. (e.g., consuming raw shellfish). High rates of mortality from certain Vibrio spp. infections demonstrate the need for an improved understanding of Vibrio spp. dynamics in estuarine regions. Our study assessed meteorological, hydrographic, and biological correlates of Vibrio parahaemolyticus and V. vulnificus at 10 sites in the Eastern Mississippi Sound System (EMSS) from April to October 2019. During the sampling period, median abundances of V. parahaemolyticus and V. vulnificus were 2.31 log MPN/L and 2.90 log MPN/L, respectively. Vibrio spp. dynamics were largely driven by site-based variation, with sites closest to freshwater inputs having the highest abundances. The E-W wind scalar, which affects Ekman transport, was a novel Vibrio spp. correlate observed. A potential salinity effect on bacterial-particle associations was identified, where V. vulnificus was associated with larger particles in conditions outside of their optimal salinity. Additionally, V. vulnificus abundances were correlated to those of harmful algal species that did not dominate community chlorophyll. Correlates from this study may be used to inform the next iteration of regionally predictive Vibrio models and may lend additional insight to Vibrio spp. ecology in similar systems. IMPORTANCE: Vibrio spp. are bacteria found in estuaries worldwide; some species can cause illness and infections in humans. Relationships between Vibrio spp. abundance, salinity, and temperature are well documented, but correlations to other environmental parameters are less understood. This study identifies unique correlates (e.g., E-W wind scalar and harmful algal species) that could potentially inform the next iteration of predictive Vibrio models for the EMSS region. Additionally, these correlates may allow existing environmental monitoring efforts to be leveraged in providing data inputs for future Vibrio risk models. An observed correlation between salinity and V. vulnificus/particle-size associations suggests that predicted environmental changes may affect the abundance of Vibrio spp. in certain reservoirs, which may alter which vectors present the greatest vibrio risk.

Vibrio infection in freshwater fish in Poland.

Vibrio species are common inhabitants of aquatic environments and have been described in connection with fish and human diseases. Six Vibrio species were isolated from diseased freshwater and ornamental fish in Poland. The strains were identified based on morphological and biochemical characteristics and confirmed by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS) as V. albensis (n=3) from Gymnocephalus cernua, Sander lucioperca, Paracheirodon innesi, and Xiphophorus hellerii; V. mimicus (n=1) from Xiphophorus maculatus; and V. vulnificus (n=1) from Nematobrycon palmeri. This is the first time that Vibrio species have been isolated and described from ornamental fish in Poland. The isolates were resistant to ampicillin (83.3%), gentamicin (16.6%), ciprofloxacin (16.6%), sulfamethoxazole-trimethoprim (16.6%), and chloramphenicol (16.6%). The multiple antibiotic resistance (MAR) index was 0.00-0.08 for V. albensis, 0.17 for V. mimicus, and 0.33 for V. vulnificus. Our study confirmed the presence of potentially pathogenic Vibrio species in freshwater and ornamental fish. Therefore, further monitoring of the presence of Vibrio species, mainly in ornamental fish, is necessary.

Vibriosis in South Asia: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVES: South Asia remains home to foodborne diseases caused by the Vibrio species. We aimed to compile and update information on the epidemiology of vibriosis in South Asia. METHODS: For this systematic review and meta-analysis, we searched PubMed, Web of Science, EMBASE, and Google Scholar for studies related to vibriosis in South Asia published up to May 2023. A random-effects meta-analysis was used to estimate the pooled isolation rate of non-cholera-causing Vibrio species. RESULTS: In total, 38 studies were included. Seven of these were case reports and 22 were included in the meta-analysis. The reported vibriosis cases were caused by non-O1/non-O139 V. cholerae, V. parahaemolyticus, V. fluvialis, and V. vulnificus. The overall pooled isolation rate was 4.0% (95% confidence interval [CI] 3.0-5.0%) in patients with diarrhea. Heterogeneity was high (I2 = 98.0%). The isolation rate of non-O1/non-O139 V. cholerae, V. parahaemolyticus, and V. fluvialis were 9.0 (95% CI 7.0-10.0%), 1.0 (95% CI 1.0-2.0%), and 2.0 (95% CI: 1.0-3.0%), respectively. Regarding V. parahaemolyticus, O3:K6 was the most frequently isolated serotype. Cases peaked during summer. Several studies reported antibiotic-resistant strains and those harboring extended-spectrum beta-lactamases genes. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates a high burden of infections caused by non-cholera-causing Vibrio species in South Asia.

Pathogenic characteristics of the Vibrio parahaemolyticus which caused a gastroenteritis outbreak event in Huzhou.

The pathogenic characteristics of V. parahaemolyticus isolated from a gastroenteritis outbreak event in Deqing County of Huzhou City in 2022 were analyzed. Pathogen detection was performed on 30 anal swabs (26 patients, 1 chef and 3 waiters). The isolates of V. parahaemolyticus were analyzed by serum typing, pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) molecular typing, multiplex fluorescent PCR detection of tdh/trh virulence gene and drug sensitivity test. 15 patients were positive for V. parahaemolyticus, 1 patient was positive for V. parahaemolyticus and Enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC), 1 patient was positive for EAEC, and the chef was positive for EAEC. The serotype test results of the 16 V. parahaemolyticus were 14 O4:KUT and 2 O10:K4. All samples were negative for other tested bacteria. All V. parahaemolyticus strains were positive for tdh genes and negative for trh gene. The 16 isolates were 100% resistant to ampicillin (AMP), and sensitive to the other12 antibiotics. From the results of serotype and PFGE, the V. parahaemolyticus strains with two serotypes are clustered into two branches according to their serotypes. The three EAEC strains were non-homologous. In conclusion, we detected V. parahaemolyticus and EAEC from an outbreak of gastroenteritis. And V. parahaemolyticus with two serotypes may be the cause of this event, according to the traceability results.

Vibrio species bloodstream infections in Queensland, Australia.

BACKGROUND: Vibrio species bloodstream infections have been associated with significant mortality and morbidity. Limited information is available regarding the epidemiology of bloodstream infections because of Vibrio species in the Australian context. AIMS: The objective of this study was to define the incidence and risk factors for developing Vibrio species bloodstream infections and compare differences between different species. METHODS: All patients with Vibrio spp. isolated from positive blood cultures between 1 January 2000 and 31 December 2019 were identified by the state-wide Pathology Queensland laboratory. Demographics, clinical foci of infections and comorbid conditions were collected in addition to antimicrobial susceptibility results. RESULTS: About 100 cases were identified between 2000 and 2019 with an incidence of 1.2 cases/1 million person-years. Seasonal and geographical variation occurred with the highest incidence in the summer months and in the tropical north. Increasing age, male sex and multiple comorbidities were identified as risk factors. Vibrio vulnificus was isolated most frequently and associated with the most severe disease. Overall case fatality was 19%. CONCLUSIONS: There is potential for increasing cases of Vibrio species infections globally with ageing populations and climate change. Ongoing clinical awareness is required to ensure optimal patient outcomes.

Increased incidence of vibriosis in Maryland, U.S.A., 2006-2019.

BACKGROUND: Vibrio spp. naturally occur in warm water with moderate salinity. Infections with non-cholera Vibrio (vibriosis) cause an estimated 80,000 illnesses and 100 fatalities each year in the United States. Climate associated changes to environmental parameters in aquatic ecosystems are largely promoting Vibrio growth, and increased incidence of vibriosis is being reported globally. However, vibriosis trends in the northeastern U.S. (e.g., Maryland) have not been evaluated since 2008. METHODS: Vibriosis case data for Maryland (2006-2019; n = 611) were obtained from the COVIS database. Incidence rates were calculated using U.S. Census Bureau population estimates for Maryland. A logistic regression model, including region, age group, race, gender, occupation, and exposure type, was used to estimate the likelihood of hospitalization. RESULTS: Comparing the 2006-2012 and 2013-2019 periods, there was a 39% (p = 0.01) increase in the average annual incidence rate (per 100,000 population) of vibriosis, with V. vulnificus infections seeing the greatest percentage increase (53%, p = 0.01), followed by V. parahaemolyticus (47%, p = 0.05). The number of hospitalizations increased by 58% (p = 0.01). Since 2010, there were more reported vibriosis cases with a hospital duration ≥10 days. Patients from the upper eastern shore region and those over the age of 65 were more likely (OR = 6.8 and 12.2) to be hospitalized compared to other patients. CONCLUSIONS: Long-term increases in Vibrio infections, notably V. vulnificus wound infections, are occurring in Maryland. This trend, along with increased rates in hospitalizations and average hospital durations, underscore the need to improve public awareness, water monitoring, post-harvest seafood interventions, and environmental forecasting ability.

[Comparative study on three molecular typing methods of Vibrio parahaemolyticus].

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the correlation among the three molecular typing method of pulsed field gel electrophoresis(PFGE), repetitive extragenic palindromic(REP)-PCR and en-terobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus(ERIC)-PCR, and to explore the genetic relationship among strains, and to further understand the distribution and epidemic trend of Vibrio parahaemolyticus in Liaoning Province by combining Serotype analysis. METHODS: Serum typing, PFGE, REP-PCR, and ERIC-PCR molecular typing and cluster analysis were performed on 150 VP isolates from Liaoning Province in 2018. RESULTS: 118 isolates could be divided into 14 Serotype, and 32 isolates could not be classified. The main serotypes were O3, O1 and O2. The resolution(DI) of PFGE is 0.969, the resolution(DI) of REP-PCR is 0.948, and the resolution(DI) of ERIC-PCR is 0.927. The Serotype O3 group strains are highly similar to the molecular types of O1 group strains. CONCLUSION: In 2018, the epidemic Serotype of clinical VP isolates in Liaoning Province is still O3: K6, and the epidemic serotype of food VP isolates is still O2. The result of PFGE, REP-PCR, and ERIC-PCR typing method are consistent, and the resolution and reproducibility of PFGE typing method are superior to the other two method. The Serotype O3 group is closely related to O1 group.

Enhancing Vibrio vulnificus infection diagnosis for negative culture patients with metagenomic next-generation sequencing.

Objective: To evaluate the diagnostic value of metagenomic next-generation sequencing (mNGS) in Vibrio vulnificus (V. vulnificus) infection. Methods: A retrospective analysis of patients with V. vulnificus infection at the Fifth Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University from January 1, 2020 to April 23, 2023 was conducted. 14 enrolled patients were diagnosed by culture or mNGS. The corresponding medical records were reviewed, and the clinical data analyzed included demographics, epidemiology laboratory findings, physical examination, symptoms at presentation, antibiotic and surgical treatment, and outcome. Results: In this study, 78.6% (11/14) patients had a history of marine trauma (including fish stab, shrimp stab, crab splints and fish hook wounds), 7.1% (1/14) had eaten seafood, and the remaining 14.3% (2/14) had no definite cause. Isolation of V. vulnificus from clinical samples including blood, tissue, fester and secreta. 9 cases were positive for culture, 5 cases were detected synchronously by mNGS and got positive for V. vulnificus. 85.7% (12/14) cases accepted surgical treatment, with 1 patient suffering finger amputated. 14 enrolled patients received appropriate antibiotic therapy, and all of them had recovered and discharged. 9 strains V. vulnificus isolated in this study were sensitive to most beta-lactam antibiotics, aminoglycosides, quinolones, etc. Conclusion: Vibrio vulnificus infection is a common water-exposed disease in Zhuhai, which requires identification of a number of pathogens. Of severe infections with unknown pathogen, mNGS can be used simultaneously, and the potential to detect multiple pathogens is of great help in guiding treatment.

Occurrence of Vibrio spp. in Selected Recreational Water Bodies in Belgium during 2021 Bathing Season.

In recent years, a global increase in the number of reports of human vibriosis involving V. cholerae non-O1/O139 (NOVC) and other Vibrio spp. has been observed. In this context, the Belgian National Reference Center for Vibrio conducted an assessment of the presence of Vibrio spp. in recreational waters. Water sampling was performed monthly in different lakes in Wallonia and Flanders, including the North Sea. The collected water was then filtrated and cultured, and Vibrio spp. was quantified according to the Most Probable Number (MPN). Presumptive colonies were confirmed via MALDI-TOF, and PCR for virulence genes was applied if justified. No Vibrio spp. was found in the analyzed water bodies in Wallonia. However, NOVC was isolated from three different lakes in Flanders and from coastal water. In addition, V. alginolyticus and V. parahaemolyticus were also detected in coastal water. No clear impact of the pH and temperature was observed on Vibrio spp. occurrence. Our study demonstrates the presence of Vibrio spp. in different bathing water bodies, mostly in the north of Belgium, and supports the recommendation to include Vibrio spp. as a water quality indicator for bathing water quality assessment to ensure the safety of water recreational users in Belgium.

Comprehensive analysis of Vibrio alginolyticus: Environmental risk factors in the cultured Gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata) under seasonal fluctuations and water parameter alterations.

This study aimed to investigate the relationship between seasonal variations, water parameters and the prevalence of Vibriosis in Gilthead seabream. A total of 160 Gilthead seabream fish were sampled over the course of 1 year from private earthen pond farms in the Suez Canal area and examined for abnormalities and internal lesions. Vibrio alginolyticus, the causative agent of Vibriosis, was isolated and characterized from the sampled Gilthead seabream fish. The study revealed a significant correlation between different seasons and the prevalence of V. alginolyticus, with lower occurrence during autumn. Analysis of water parameters showed that toxic ammonia concentration was not effective in distinguishing between positive and negative cases of V. alginolyticus. Dissolved oxygen showed weak predictive ability for the occurrence of V. alginolyticus, while temperature demonstrated moderate potential as a predictor of its prevalence. pH values, organic matter concentrations and salinity showed no significant association with the occurrence of V. alginolyticus. Experimental challenges highlighted the vulnerability of Gilthead seabream to V. alginolyticus and emphasized the impact of environmental factors, such as pH and toxic ammonia, on their mortality and survival. The study emphasizes the importance of considering seasonal changes and water quality parameters in managing V. alginolyticus in mariculture. It underscores the need for careful monitoring and control of environmental factors to ensure the health and well-being of cultured fish populations. The findings contribute to our understanding of Vibriosis management and provide valuable insights for developing effective strategies in the aquaculture industry.

Meteorological associations of Vibrio vulnificus clinical infections in tropical settings: Correlations with air pressure, wind speed, and temperature.

V. vulnificus is one of the deadliest waterborne pathogens, yet little is known of the ecological and environmental forces that drive outbreaks. As a nationally notifiable disease, all cases of V. vulnificus diagnosed in the United States are reported to the state in which they occurred, as well as to the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) in Atlanta, Georgia. Given that the state of Florida is a 'hotspot' for V. vulnificus in the United States, we examined the prevalence and incidence of cases reported to the Florida Department of Health (2008-2020). Using a dataset comprised of 448 cases of disease caused by V. vulnificus infection, we identified meteorological variables that were associated with clinical cases and deaths. Combined with data from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), we first utilized correlation analysis to examine the linear relationships between satellite meteorological measurements such as wind speed, air temperature, water temperature, and sea-level pressure. We then measured the correlation of those meteorological variables with coastal cases of V. vulnificus, including the outcome, survival, or death. We also constructed a series of logistic regression models to analyze the relationship between temporal and meteorological variables during months that V. vulnificus cases were reported versus months when V. vulnificus cases were not reported. We report that between 2008 and 2020, V. vulnificus cases generally increased over time, peaking in 2017. As water temperature and air temperature increased, so too did the likelihood that infection with V. vulnificus would lead to patient death. We also found that as mean wind speed and sea-level pressure decreased, the probability that a V. vulnificus case would be reported increased. In summary, we discuss the potential factors that may contribute to the observed correlations and speculate that meteorological variables may increase in their public health relevance in light of rising global temperatures.

Environmental Factors Influencing Occurrence of Vibrio parahaemolyticus and Vibrio vulnificus.

Incidence of vibriosis is rising globally, with evidence that changing climatic conditions are influencing environmental factors that enhance growth of pathogenic Vibrio spp. in aquatic ecosystems. To determine the impact of environmental factors on occurrence of pathogenic Vibrio spp., samples were collected in the Chesapeake Bay, Maryland, during 2009 to 2012 and 2019 to 2022. Genetic markers for Vibrio vulnificus (vvhA) and Vibrio parahaemolyticus (tlh, tdh, and trh) were enumerated by direct plating and DNA colony hybridization. Results confirmed seasonality and environmental parameters as predictors. Water temperature showed a linear correlation with vvhA and tlh, and two critical thresholds were observed, an initial increase in detectable numbers (>15°C) and a second increase when maximum counts were recorded (>25°C). Temperature and pathogenic V. parahaemolyticus (tdh and trh) were not strongly correlated; however, the evidence showed that these organisms persist in oyster and sediment at colder temperatures. Salinity (10 to 15 ppt), total chlorophyll a (5 to 25 µg/L), dissolved oxygen (5 to 10 mg/L), and pH (8) were associated with increased abundance of vvhA and tlh. Importantly, a long-term increase in Vibrio spp. numbers was observed in water samples between the two collection periods, specifically at Tangier Sound (lower bay), with the evidence suggesting an extended seasonality for these bacteria in the area. Notably, tlh showed a mean positive increase that was ca. 3-fold overall, with the most significant increase observed during the fall. In conclusion, vibriosis continues to be a risk in the Chesapeake Bay region. A predictive intelligence system to assist decision makers, with respect to climate and human health, is warranted. IMPORTANCE The genus Vibrio includes pathogenic species that are naturally occurring in marine and estuarine environments globally. Routine monitoring for Vibrio species and environmental parameters influencing their incidence is critical to provide a warning system for the public when the risk of infection is high. In this study, occurrence of Vibrio parahaemolyticus and Vibrio vulnificus, both potential human pathogens, in Chesapeake Bay water, oysters, and sediment samples collected over a 13-year period was analyzed. The results provide a confirmation of environmental predictors for these bacteria, notably temperature, salinity, and total chlorophyll a, and their seasonality of occurrence. New findings refine environmental parameter thresholds of culturable Vibrio species and document a long-term increase in Vibrio populations in the Chesapeake Bay. This study provides a valuable foundation for development of predicative risk intelligence models for Vibrio incidence during climate change.

Pathological lesions associated with Vibrio infection in Atlantic horse mackerel (Trachurus trachurus L., 1758) from the western coast of Tripoli, Libya.

Background: Vibrios are aquatic bacteria causing Vibriosis in humans and aquatic animals. Vibriosis is a significant disease of cultured and wild fish. Aim: The present study aimed to address the impact of Vibrios on the health status of Trachurus trachurus inhabiting the coastal area of Tripoli. Methods: A total of 100 samples of (T. trachurus) were collected randomly from the Western Coast of Tripoli and Bab Al-Baher market, throughout the period from spring 2019 to summer 2019. All the sampled fish were examined externally and internally and lesions were recorded. Bacterial isolation from the liver and kidney was carried out using the appropriate culture media. Tissue samples were taken from the liver, kidney, and spleen in 10% neutral buffered formalin for a histopathology examination. The tissue sections were stained with hematoxylin and eosin to assess morphologically and Perl's Prussian blue for the demonstration of ferric iron. Results: On average 69% of the infected fish exhibited at least one pathological lesion. Vibrios were recovered from 90% of the examined fish. The histopathological changes of the liver showed severe congestion of blood vessels (BVs), mononuclear cell infiltration surrounding a bile duct, granular degeneration and coagulative necrosis of hepatocytes in the centrilobular area, marked vacuolar degeneration of hepatocytes, activation of melano-macrophage centers (MMCs), multiple cysts of nematode in hepatic tissue (incidental finding). The histopathological alterations of the kidney showed severe congestion of BVs, vacuolar degeneration of the renal tubular epithelium, severe interstitial mononuclear cell infiltration, and marked activation of MMCs in the kidney. Moreover, congestion of BVs and marked activation of melano-macrophages (MMCs) were found in the spleen. The MMCs of most of the sampled tissues showed a strong positive reaction for ferric iron. Conclusion: The polluted aquatic environment by sewage at Tripoli Coast is an essential factor for triggering the pathogenicity and invasion of Vibrios to vulnerable Atlantic horse mackerel. Also, this study is a preliminary step to give a baseline for further future studies on epidemiology and control of Vibrio infection in Libyan fish.

An Outbreak Investigation of Vibrio parahaemolyticus Infections in the United States Linked to Crabmeat Imported from Venezuela: 2018.

Vibrio parahaemolyticus is the leading cause of seafood-related foodborne illness globally. In 2018, the U.S. federal, state, and local public health and regulatory partners investigated a multistate outbreak of V. parahaemolyticus infections linked to crabmeat that resulted in 26 ill people and nine hospitalizations. State and U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) laboratories recovered V. parahaemolyticus, Salmonella spp., and Listeria monocytogenes isolates from crabmeat samples collected from various points of distribution and conducted phylogenetic analyses of whole-genome sequencing data. Federal, state, and local partners conducted traceback investigations to determine the source of crabmeat. Multiple Venezuelan processors that supplied various brands of crabmeat were identified, but a sole firm was not confirmed as the source of the outbreak. Travel restrictions between the United States and Venezuela prevented FDA officials from conducting on-site inspections of cooked crabmeat processors. Based on investigation findings, partners developed public communications advising consumers not to eat crabmeat imported from Venezuela and placed potentially implicated firms on import alerts. While some challenges limited the scope of the investigation, epidemiologic, traceback, and laboratory evidence identified the contaminated food and country of origin, and contributed to public health and regulatory actions, preventing additional illnesses. This multistate outbreak illustrates the importance of adhering to appropriate food safety practices and regulations for imported seafood.

[Genomic epidemiology of Vibrio parahaemolyticus from acute diarrheal patients in Shenzhen City from 2013 to 2021].

Objective: To characterize the prevalence and genomic epidemiology of Vibrio parahaemolyticus from acute diarrheal patients in Shenzhen City from 2013 to 2021. Methods: Based on the Shenzhen Infectious Diarrhea Surveillance System, acute diarrheal patients were actively monitored in sentinel hospitals from 2013 to 2021. Whole-genome sequencing (WGS) of Vibrio parahaemolyticus isolates was performed, and the genomic population structure, serotypes, virulence genes and multilocus sequence typing were analyzed. Outbreak clusters from 2019 to 2021 were explored based on single-nucleotide polymorphism analysis. Results: A total of 48 623 acute diarrhea cases were monitored in 15 sentinel hospitals from 2013 to 2021, and 1 135 Vibrio parahaemolyticus strains were isolated, with a positive isolation rate of 2.3%. Qualified whole-genome sequencing data of 852 isolates were obtained. Eighty-nine serotypes, 21 known ST types and 5 new ST types were identified by sequence analysis, and 93.2% of strains were detected with toxin profile of tdh+trh-. 8 clonal groups (CGs) were captured, with CG3 as the absolute predominance, followed by CG189. The CG3 group was dominated by O3:K6 serotype and ST3 sequence type, while CG189 group was mainly O4:KUT, O4:K8 serotypes and ST189a and ST189 type. A total of 13 clusters were identified, containing 154 cases. About 30 outbreak clusters with 29 outbreak clusters caused by CG3 strains from 2019 to 2021. Conclusion: Vibrio parahaemolyticus is a major pathogen of acute infectious diarrhea in Shenzhen City, with diverse population structures. CG3 and CG189 have been prevalent and predominant in Shenzhen City for a long time. Scattered outbreaks and persistent sources of contamination ignored by traditional methods could be captured by WGS analysis. Tracing the source of epidemic clone groups and taking precise prevention and control measures are expected to significantly reduce the burden of diarrhea diseases caused by Vibrio parahaemolyticus infection in Shenzhen City.

Climate warming and increasing Vibrio vulnificus infections in North America.

Vibrio vulnificus is an opportunistic bacterial pathogen, occurring in warm low-salinity waters. V. vulnificus wound infections due to seawater exposure are infrequent but mortality rates are high (~ 18%). Seawater bacterial concentrations are increasing but changing disease pattern assessments or climate change projections are rare. Here, using a 30-year database of V. vulnificus cases for the Eastern USA, changing disease distribution was assessed. An ecological niche model was developed, trained and validated to identify links to oceanographic and climate data. This model was used to predict future disease distribution using data simulated by seven Global Climate Models (GCMs) which belong to the newest Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP6). Risk was estimated by calculating the total population within 200 km of the disease distribution. Predictions were generated for different "pathways" of global socioeconomic development which incorporate projections of greenhouse gas emissions and demographic change. In Eastern USA between 1988 and 2018, V. vulnificus wound infections increased eightfold (10-80 cases p.a.) and the northern case limit shifted northwards 48 km p.a. By 2041-2060, V. vulnificus infections may expand their current range to encompass major population centres around New York (40.7°N). Combined with a growing and increasingly elderly population, annual case numbers may double. By 2081-2100 V. vulnificus infections may be present in every Eastern USA State under medium-to-high future emissions and warming. The projected expansion of V. vulnificus wound infections stresses the need for increased individual and public health awareness in these areas.

Vibrio Infections and the Twenty-First Century.

The Vibrionaceae is a highly diverse family of aquatic bacteria. Some members of this ubiquitous group can cause a variety of diseases in humans ranging from cholera caused by Vibrio cholerae, severe septicemia caused by Vibrio vulnificus, to acute gastroenteritis by Vibrio parahaemolyticus. Planet Earth is experiencing unprecedented changes of planetary scale associated with climate change. These environmental perturbations paired with overpopulation and pollution are increasing the distribution of pathogenic Vibrios and exacerbating the risk of causing infections. In this chapter, we discuss various aspects of Vibrio infections within the context of the twenty-first century with a major emphasis on the aforementioned pathogenic species. Overall, we believe that the twenty-first century is posed to be both one full of challenges due to the rise of these pathogens, and also a catalyst for innovative and groundbreaking discoveries.

Vibrio vulnificus, an Underestimated Zoonotic Pathogen.

V. vulnificus, continues being an underestimated yet lethal zoonotic pathogen. In this chapter, we provide a comprehensive review of numerous aspects of the biology, epidemiology, and virulence mechanisms of this poorly understood pathogen. We will emphasize the widespread role of horizontal gene transfer in V. vulnificus specifically virulence plasmids and draw parallels from aquaculture farms to human health. By placing current findings in the context of climate change, we will also contend that fish farms act as evolutionary drivers that accelerate species evolution and the emergence of new virulent groups. Overall, we suggest that on-farm control measures should be adopted both to protect animals from Vibriosis, and also as a public health measure to prevent the emergence of new zoonotic groups.