Topiroxostat improves glomerulosclerosis in type 2 diabetic Nagoya Shibata Yasuda mice with early diabetic kidney disease.

Reactive oxygen species production might be prevented by xanthine oxidoreductase (XOR) inhibitors, which can cause glomerulosclerosis. We aimed to investigate whether topiroxostat, an XOR inhibitor, prevents diabetic kidney disease development in mice. Six-week-old control Institute of Cancer Research (ICR) mice and type 2 diabetic Nagoya Shibata Yasuda (NSY) mice were divided into the ICR group (ICR mice which received a lard-containing high-fat diet [HFD] based on the AIN-93G diet), NSY control group (NSY mice which received the same aforementioned diet), and NSY + topiroxostat group (NSY mice which received the same aforementioned diet with addition of 0.0012% topiroxostat). After 20 weeks, plasma biomarkers, XOR activity and oxidative stress levels, which were assessed using malondialdehyde (MDA), were measured through enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay or enzymatic methods. Renal pathology was evaluated using periodic acid-Schiff staining. Redox gene and protein expression were determined using RT-qPCR and western blotting, respectively. Plasma XOR activity was lower in NSY mice treated with topiroxostat than those without. Plasma cystatin C and creatinine levels did not differ between the ICR and NSY control groups or between the NSY control and NSY + topiroxostat groups. The NSY + topiroxostat group showed a smaller mesangial area than the NSY control group. The mRNA expression of Sod3, Prdx1, Gpx2, and Gpx3 was higher in the NSY + topiroxostat group than in the NSY control group. Renal MDA levels were lower in the NSY + topiroxostat group than in the NSY control group. Topiroxostat can reduce glomerulosclerosis, and the reduction is associated with renal oxidative markers.

[Uric Acid Metabolism, Uric Acid Transporters and Dysuricemia].

Serum urate levels are determined by the balance between uric acid production and uric acid excretion capacity from the kidneys and intestinal tract. Dysuricemia, including hyperuricemia and hypouricemia, develops when the balance shifts towards an increase or a decrease in the uric acid pool. Hyperuricemia is mostly a multifactorial genetic disorder involving several disease susceptibility genes and environmental factors. Hypouricemia, on the other hand, is caused by genetic abnormalities. The main genes involved in dysuricemia are xanthine oxidoreductase, an enzyme that produces uric acid, and the urate transporters urate transporter 1/solute carrier family 22 member 12 (URAT1/SLC22A12), glucose transporter 9/solute carrier family 2 member 9 (GLUT9/SLC2A9) and ATP binding cassette subfamily G member 2 (ABCG2). Deficiency of xanthine oxidoreductase results in xanthinuria, a rare disease with marked hypouricemia. Xanthinuria can be due to a single deficiency of xanthine oxidoreductase or in combination with aldehyde oxidase deficiency as well. The latter is caused by a deficiency in molybdenum cofactor sulfurase, which is responsible for adding sulphur atoms to the molybdenum cofactor required for xanthine oxidoreductase and aldehyde oxidase to exert their action. URAT1/SLC22A12 and GLUT9/SLC2A9 are involved in urate reabsorption and their deficiency leads to renal hypouricemia, a condition that is common in Japanese due to URAT1/SLC22A12 deficiency. On the other hand, ABCG2 is involved in the secretion of urate, and many Japanese have single nucleotide polymorphisms that result in its reduced function, leading to hyperuricemia. In particular, severe dysfunction of ABCG2 leads to hyperuricemia with reduced extrarenal excretion.

Kidney Failure Secondary to Hereditary Xanthinuria due to a Homozygous Deletion of the XDH Gene in the Absence of Overt Kidney Stone Disease.

Hereditary xanthinuria (HXAN) is a rare metabolic disorder that results from mutations in either the xanthine dehydrogenase (XDH) or the molybdenum cofactor sulfurase genes (MOCOS), respectively defining HXAN type I and type II. Hypouricemia, hypouricosuria, and abnormally high plasma and urine levels of xanthine, causing susceptibility to xanthine nephrolithiasis and deposition of xanthine crystals in tissues, are the metabolic hallmarks of HXAN. Several pathogenic variants in the XDH gene have so far been identified in patients with HXAN type I, but the clinical phenotype associated with the whole deletion of the human XDH gene is unknown. Herein, we report the case of a woman diagnosed with HXAN, whose molecular genetic testing revealed a homozygous microdeletion involving the XDH gene. Distinctive features of her medical history were the diagnosis of arterial hypertension and microalbuminuria at 22 years of age; a single pregnancy at the age of 25, complicated by proteinuria and transient kidney function deterioration in the third trimester; unexplained severe hypouricemia incidentally discovered during pregnancy; inability to breastfeed her newborn daughter due to primary agalactia; chronic kidney disease (CKD) stage 3 diagnosed at age 35; and progression to end-stage kidney disease over the next 12 years. Protocol noninvasive laboratory and imaging investigation was not informative as to the cause of CKD. This is the first description of the clinical phenotype associated with a natural knockout of the human XDH gene. Despite the lack of kidney histopathology data, the striking similarities with the phenotypes exhibited by comparable murine models validate the latter as useful sources of mechanistic insights for the pathogenesis of the human disease, supporting the hypothesis that the absence of xanthine dehydrogenase activity might represent a susceptibility factor for chronic tubulointerstitial nephritis, even in patients without kidney stones.

The presence of xanthine dehydrogenase is crucial for the maturation of the rat kidneys.

The development of the kidney involves essential cellular processes, such as cell proliferation and differentiation, which are led by interactions between multiple signaling pathways. Xanthine dehydrogenase (XDH) catalyzes the reaction producing uric acid in the purine catabolism, which plays a multifaceted role in cellular metabolism. Our previous study revealed that the genetic ablation of the Xdh gene in rats leads to smaller kidneys, kidney damage, decline of renal functions, and failure to thrive. Rats, unlike humans, continue their kidney development postnatally. Therefore, we explored whether XDH plays a critical role in kidney development using SS-/- rats during postnatal development phase. XDH expression was significantly increased from postnatal day 5 to 15 in wild-type but not homozygote rat kidneys. The transcriptomic profile of renal tissue revealed several dysregulated pathways due to the lack of Xdh expression with the remodeling in inflammasome, purinergic signaling, and redox homeostasis. Further analysis suggested that lack of Xdh affects kidney development, likely via dysregulation of epidermal growth factor and its downstream STAT3 signaling. The present study showed that Xdh is essential for kidney maturation. Our data, alongside the previous research, suggests that loss of Xdh function leads to developmental issues, rendering them vulnerable to kidney diseases in adulthood.

Mechanistic insights into iron-sulfur clusters and flavin oxidation of a novel xanthine oxidoreductase from Sulfobacillus acidophilus TPY.

Xanthine oxidoreductase (XOR) catalyzes the oxidation of purines (hypoxanthine and xanthine) to uric acid. XOR is widely used in various therapeutic and biotechnological applications. In this study, we characterized the biophysical and mechanistic properties of a novel bacterial XOR from Sulfobacillus acidophilus TPY (SaXOR). Our results showed that SaXOR is a heterotrimer consisting of three subunits, namely XoA, XoB, and XoC, which denote the molybdenum cofactor (Moco), 2Fe-2S, and FAD-binding domains, respectively. XoC was found to be stable when co-expressed with XoB, forming an XoBC complex. Furthermore, we prepared a fusion of XoB and XoC via a flexible linker (fusXoBC) and evaluated its function in comparison to that of XoBC. Spectroscopic analysis revealed that XoB harbors two 2Fe-2S clusters, whereas XoC bears a single-bound FAD cofactor. Electron transfer from reduced forms of XoC, XoBC, and fusXoBC to molecular oxygen (O2 ) during oxidative half-reaction yielded no flavin semiquinones, implying ultrafast single-electron transfer from 2Fe-2Sred to FAD. In the presence of XoA, XoBC and fusXoBC exhibited comparable XoA affinity and exploited a shared overall mechanism. Nonetheless, the linkage may accelerate the two-step, single-electron transfer cascade from 2Fe-2Sred to FAD while augmenting protein stability. Collectively, our findings provide novel insights into SaXOR properties and oxidation mechanisms divergent from prior mammalian and bacterial XOR paradigms.

Hemin and iron increase synthesis and trigger export of xanthine oxidoreductase from hepatocytes to the circulation.

We recently reported a previously unknown salutary role for xanthine oxidoreductase (XOR) in intravascular heme overload whereby hepatocellular export of XOR to the circulation was identified as a seminal step in affording protection. However, the cellular signaling and export mechanisms underpinning this process were not identified. Here, we present novel data showing hepatocytes upregulate XOR expression/protein abundance and actively release it to the extracellular compartment following exposure to hemopexin-bound hemin, hemin or free iron. For example, murine (AML-12 cells) hepatocytes treated with hemin (10 µM) exported XOR to the medium in the absence of cell death or loss of membrane integrity (2.0 ± 1.0 vs 16 ± 9 µU/mL p < 0.0001). The path of exocytosis was found to be noncanonical as pretreatment of the hepatocytes with Vaculin-1, a lysosomal trafficking inhibitor, and not Brefeldin A inhibited XOR release and promoted intracellular XOR accumulation (84 ± 17 vs 24 ± 8 hemin vs 5 ± 3 control µU/mg). Interestingly, free iron (Fe2+ and Fe3+) induced similar upregulation and release of XOR compared to hemin. Conversely, concomitant treatment with hemin and the classic transition metal chelator DTPA (20 µM) or uric acid completely blocked XOR release (p < 0.01). Our previously published time course showed XOR release from hepatocytes likely required transcriptional upregulation. As such, we determined that both Sp1 and NF-kB were acutely activated by hemin treatment (∼2-fold > controls for both, p < 0.05) and that silencing either or TLR4 with siRNA prevented hemin-induced XOR upregulation (p < 0.01). Finally, to confirm direct action of these transcription factors on the Xdh gene, chromatin immunoprecipitation was performed indicating that hemin significantly enriched (∼5-fold) both Sp1 and NF-kB near the transcription start site. In summary, our study identified a previously unknown pathway by which XOR is upregulated via SP1/NF-kB and subsequently exported to the extracellular environment. This is, to our knowledge, the very first study to demonstrate mechanistically that XOR can be specifically targeted for export as the seminal step in a compensatory response to heme/Fe overload.

Natural mutations of human XDH promote the nitrite (NO2-)-reductase capacity of xanthine oxidoreductase: A novel mechanism to promote redox health?

Several rare genetic variations of human XDH have been shown to alter xanthine oxidoreductase (XOR) activity leading to impaired purine catabolism. However, XOR is a multi-functional enzyme that depending upon the environmental conditions also expresses oxidase activity leading to both O2·- and H2O2 and nitrite (NO2-) reductase activity leading to nitric oxide (·NO). Since these products express important, and often diametrically opposite, biological activity, consideration of the impact of XOR mutations in the context of each aspect of the biochemical activity of the enzyme is needed to determine the potential full impact of these variants. Herein, we show that known naturally occurring hXDH mutations do not have a uniform impact upon the biochemical activity of the enzyme in terms of uric acid (UA), reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide ·NO formation. We show that the His1221Arg mutant, in the presence of xanthine, increases UA, O2·- and NO generation compared to the WT, whilst the Ile703Val increases UA and ·NO formation, but not O2·-. We speculate that this change in the balance of activity of the enzyme is likely to endow those carrying these mutations with a harmful or protective influence over health that may explain the current equipoise underlying the perceived importance of XDH mutations. We also show that, in presence of inorganic NO2-, XOR-driven O2·- production is substantially reduced. We suggest that targeting enzyme activity to enhance the NO2--reductase profile in those carrying such mutations may provide novel therapeutic options, particularly in cardiovascular disease.

Discriminating Susceptibility of Xanthine Oxidoreductase Family to Metals.

The xanthine oxidoreductase (XOR) family are metal-containing enzymes that use the molybdenum cofactor (Moco), 2Fe-2S clusters, and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) for their catalytic activity. This large molybdoenzyme family includes xanthine, aldehyde, and CO dehydrogenases. XORs are widely distributed from bacteria to humans due to their key roles in the catabolism of purines, aldehydes, drugs, and xenobiotics, as well as interconversions between CO and CO2. Assessing the effect of excess metals on the Rubrivivax gelatinosus bacterium, we found that exposure to copper (Cu) or cadmium (Cd) caused a dramatic decrease in the activity of a high-molecular-weight soluble complex exhibiting nitroblue tetrazolium reductase activity. Mass spectrometry and genetic analyses showed that the complex corresponds to a putative CO dehydrogenase (pCOD). Using mutants that accumulate either Cu+ or Cd2+ in the cytoplasm, we show that Cu+ or Cd2+ is a potent inhibitor of XORs (pCOD and the xanthine dehydrogenase [XDH]) in vivo. This is the first in vivo demonstration that Cu+ affects Moco-containing enzymes. The specific inhibitory effect of these compounds on the XOR activity is further supported in vitro by direct addition of competing metals to protein extracts. Moreover, emphasis is given on the inhibitory effect of Cu on bovine XOR, showing that the XOR family could be a common target of Cu. Given the conservation of XOR structure and function across the tree of life, we anticipate that our findings could be transferable to other XORs and organisms. IMPORTANCE The high toxicity of Cu, Cd, Pb, As, and other metals arises from their ability to cross membranes and target metalloenzymes in the cytoplasm. Identifying these targets provides insights into the toxicity mechanisms. The vulnerability of metalloenzymes arises from the accessibility of their cofactors to ions. Accordingly, many enzymes whose cofactors are solvent exposed are likely to be targets of competing metals. Here, we describe for the first time, with in vivo and in vitro experiments, a direct effect of excess Cu on the xanthine oxidoreductase family (XOR/XDH/pCOD). We show that toxic metal affects these Moco enzymes, and we suggest that access to the Moco center by Cu ions could explain the Cu inhibition of XORs in living organisms. Human XOR activity is associated with hyperuricemia, xanthinuria, gout arthritis, and other diseases. Our findings in vivo highlight XOR as a Cu target and thus support the potential use of Cu in metal-based therapeutics against these diseases.

Xanthine oxidoreductase gene polymorphisms are associated with high risk of sepsis and organ failure.

BACKGROUND: Sepsis and associated organ failures confer substantial morbidity and mortality. Xanthine oxidoreductase (XOR) is implicated in the development of tissue oxidative damage in a wide variety of respiratory and cardiovascular disorders including sepsis and sepsis-associated acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). We examined whether single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the XDH gene (encoding XOR) might influence susceptibility to and outcome in patients with sepsis. METHODS: We genotyped 28 tag SNPs in XDH gene in the CELEG cohort, including 621 European American (EA) and 353 African American (AA) sepsis patients. Serum XOR activity was measured in a subset of CELEG subjects. Additionally, we assessed the functional effects of XDH variants utilizing empirical data from different integrated software tools and datasets. RESULTS: Among AA patients, six intronic variants (rs206805, rs513311, rs185925, rs561525, rs2163059, rs13387204), in a region enriched with regulatory elements, were associated with risk of sepsis (P < 0.008-0.049). Two out of six SNPs (rs561525 and rs2163059) were associated with risk of sepsis-associated ARDS in an independent validation cohort (GEN-SEP) of 590 sepsis patients of European descent. Two common SNPs (rs1884725 and rs4952085) in tight linkage disequilibrium (LD) provided strong evidence for association with increased levels of serum creatinine (Padjusted<0.0005 and 0.0006, respectively), suggesting a role in increased risk of renal dysfunction. In contrast, among EA ARDS patients, the missense variant rs17011368 (I703V) was associated with enhanced mortality at 60-days (P < 0.038). We found higher serum XOR activity in 143 sepsis patients (54.5 ± 57.1 mU/mL) compared to 31 controls (20.9 ± 12.4 mU/mL, P = 1.96 × 10- 13). XOR activity was associated with the lead variant rs185925 among AA sepsis patients with ARDS (P < 0.005 and Padjusted<0.01). Multifaceted functions of prioritized XDH variants, as suggested by various functional annotation tools, support their potential causality in sepsis. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that XOR is a novel combined genetic and biochemical marker for risk and outcome in patients with sepsis and ARDS.

Genetic susceptibility to diabetic kidney disease is linked to promoter variants of XOR.

The lifetime risk of kidney disease in people with diabetes is 10-30%, implicating genetic predisposition in the cause of diabetic kidney disease (DKD). Here we identify an expression quantitative trait loci (QTLs) in the cis-acting regulatory region of the xanthine dehydrogenase, or xanthine oxidoreductase (Xor), a binding site for C/EBPß, to be associated with diabetes-induced podocyte loss in DKD in male mice. We examine mouse inbred strains that are susceptible (DBA/2J) and resistant (C57BL/6J) to DKD, as well as a panel of recombinant inbred BXD mice, to map QTLs. We also uncover promoter XOR orthologue variants in humans associated with high risk of DKD. We introduced the risk variant into the 5'-regulatory region of XOR in DKD-resistant mice, which resulted in increased Xor activity associated with podocyte depletion, albuminuria, oxidative stress and damage restricted to the glomerular endothelium, which increase further with type 1 diabetes, high-fat diet and ageing. Therefore, differential regulation of Xor contributes to phenotypic consequences with diabetes and ageing.

Candidate causative variant for xanthinuria in a Domestic Shorthair cat.

Xanthinuria is a clinically significant form of urolithiasis in cats with poor clinical outcomes and limited treatment options. In humans, xanthinuria has an autosomal recessive mode of inheritance, with variants in xanthine dehydrogenase (XDH) and molybdenum cofactor sulfurase (MOCOS) responsible for cases. While causative genetic variants have not been identified in the domestic cat, a recessive mode of inheritance has been suggested. DNA was extracted from EDTA-stabilised blood obtained from a Domestic Shorthair cat with clinically confirmed xanthinuria. Whole-genome sequencing and variant assessment in XDH and MOCOS identified XDH:c.2042C>T (XDH:p.(A681V)) as a candidate causative variant for xanthinuria in this cat. The variant is located in a highly conserved part of the molybdenum-pterin co-factor domain, responsible for catalysing the hydroxylation of hypoxanthine to xanthine and uric acid. Variants in this domain of XDH have been shown to disrupt enzyme function and to cause xanthinuria in other species. When assessed in the wider cat population, the variant had an allele frequency of 15.8%, with 0.9% of the animals assessed homozygous for the alternative allele. Cats diagnosed with xanthinuria should be tested for this variant to validate its clinical relevance in the wider population.

A putative xanthine dehydrogenase is critical for Borrelia burgdorferi survival in ticks and mice.

Borrelia burgdorferi is a pathogenic bacterium and the causative agent of Lyme disease. It is exposed to reactive oxygen species (ROS) in both the vertebrate and tick hosts. While some mechanisms by which B. burgdorferi ameliorates the effects of ROS exposure have been studied, there are likely other unknown mechanisms of ROS neutralization that contribute to virulence. Here, we follow up on a three gene cluster of unknown function, bb_0554, bb_0555, and bb_0556, that our prior unbiased transposon insertional sequencing studies implicated in both ROS survival and survival in Ixodes scapularis. We confirmed these findings through genetic knockout and provide evidence that these genes are co-transcribed as an operon to produce a xanthine dehydrogenase. In agreement with these results, we found that B. burgdorferi exposure to either uric acid (a product of xanthine dehydrogenase) or allopurinol (an inhibitor of xanthine dehydrogenase) could modulate sensitivity to ROS in a bb_0554-bb_0556 dependent manner. Together, this study identifies a previously uncharacterized three gene operon in B. burgdorferi as encoding a putative xanthine dehydrogenase critical for virulence. We propose renaming this locus xdhACB.

Xanthine dehydrogenase rewires metabolism and the survival of nutrient deprived lung adenocarcinoma cells by facilitating UPR and autophagic degradation.

Xanthine dehydrogenase (XDH) is the rate-limiting enzyme in purine catabolism by converting hypoxanthine to xanthine and xanthine to uric acid. The altered expression and activity of XDH are associated with the development and prognosis of multiple types of cancer, while its role in lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) remains unknown. Herein, we demonstrated that XDH was highly expressed in LUAD and was significantly correlated with poor prognosis. Though inhibition of XDH displayed moderate effect on the viability of LUAD cells cultured in the complete medium, it significantly attenuated the survival of starved cells. Similar results were obtained in XDH-knockout cells. Nucleosides supplementation rescued the survival of starved LUAD cells upon XDH inhibition, while inhibition of purine nucleoside phosphorylase abrogated the process, indicating that nucleoside degradation is required for the XDH-mediated survival of LUAD cells. Accordingly, metabolic flux revealed that ribose derived from nucleoside fueled key carbon metabolic pathways to sustain the survival of starved LUAD cells. Mechanistically, down-regulation of XDH suppressed unfolded protein response (UPR) and autophagic flux in starved LUAD cells. Inhibition of XDH decreased the level of amino acids produced by autophagic degradation, which was accompanied with down-regulation of mTORC1 signaling. Supplementation of amino acids including glutamine or glutamate rescued the survival of starved LUAD cells upon knockout or inhibition of XDH. Finally, XDH inhibitors potentiated the anti-cancer activity of 2-deoxy-D-glucose that induced UPR and/or autophagy in vitro and in vivo. In summary, XDH plays a crucial role in the survival of starved LUAD cells and targeting XDH may improve the efficacy of drugs that induce UPR and autophagy in the therapy of LUAD.

Critical role for uricase and xanthine dehydrogenase in soybean nitrogen fixation and nodule development.

De novo purine biosynthesis is required for the incorporation of fixed nitrogen in ureide exporting nodules, as formed on soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] roots. However, in many cases, the enzymes involved in this pathway have been deduced strictly from genome annotations with little direct genetic evidence, such as mutant studies, to confirm their biochemical function or importance to nodule development. While efforts to develop large mutant collections of soybean are underway, research on this plant is still hampered by the inability to obtain mutations in any specific gene of interest. Using a forward genetic approach, as well as CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing via Agrobacterium rhizogenes-mediated hairy root transformation, we identified and characterized the role of GmUOX (Uricase) and GmXDH (Xanthine Dehydrogenase) in nitrogen fixation and nodule development in soybean. The gmuox knockout soybean mutants displayed nitrogen deficiency chlorosis and early nodule senescence, as exemplified by the reduced nitrogenase (acetylene reduction) activity in nodules, the internal greenish-white internal appearance of nodules, and diminished leghemoglobin production. In addition, gmuox1 nodules showed collapsed infected cells with degraded cytoplasm, aggregated bacteroids with no discernable symbiosome membranes, and increased formation of poly-ß-hydroxybutyrate granules. Similarly, knockout gmxdh mutant nodules, generated with the CRISPR/Cas9 system, also exhibited early nodule senescence. These genetic studies confirm the critical role of the de novo purine metabolisms pathway not only in the incorporation of fixed nitrogen but also in the successful development of a functional, nitrogen-fixing nodule. Furthermore, these studies demonstrate the great utility of the CRISPR/Cas9 system for studying root-associated gene traits when coupled with hairy root transformation.

The mechanism and significance of the conversion of xanthine dehydrogenase to xanthine oxidase in mammalian secretory gland cells.

The conversion of xanthine dehydrogenase (XDH) to xanthine oxidase (XO) occurs only in mammalian species. In fresh bovine milk, the enzyme exists predominantly as the oxidase form, in contrast to various normal organs where it is found primarily as the dehydrogenase: the mechanism of conversion to the oxidase in milk remains obscure. A systematic search for the essential factors for conversion from XDH to XO has been performed within fresh bovine milk using the highly purified dehydrogenase form after removal endogenous oxidase form by fractionation analysis. We find that conversion to the oxidase form requires four components under air: lactoperoxidase (LPO), XDH, SCN-, and substrate hypoxanthine or xanthine; the contribution of sulfhydryl oxidase appears to be minor. Disulfide bond formation between Cys-535 and Cys-995 is principally involved in the conversion, consistent with the result obtained from previous work with transgenic mice. In vitro reconstitution of LPO and SCN- results in synergistic conversion of the dehydrogenase to the oxidase the presence of xanthine, indicating the conversion is autocatalytic. Milk from an LPO knockout mouse contains a significantly greater proportion of the dehydrogenase form of the enzyme, although some oxidase form is also present, indicating that LPO contributes principally to the conversion, but that sulfhydryl oxidase (SO) may also be involved to a minor extent. All the components XDH/LPO/SCN- are necessary to inhibit bacterial growth in the presence of xanthine through disulfide bond formation in bacterial protein(s) required for replication, as part of an innate immunity system in mammals. Human GTEx Data suggest that mRNA of XDH and LPO are highly co-expressed in the salivary gland, mammary gland, mucosa of the airway and lung alveoli, and we have confirmed these human GTEx Data experimentally in mice. We discuss the possible roles of these components in the propagation of SARS-CoV-2 in these human cell types.

Xanthine oxidoreductase mediates genotoxic drug-induced autophagy and apoptosis resistance by uric acid accumulation and TGF-ß-activated kinase 1 (TAK1) activation.

Autophagy is a highly conserved cellular process that profoundly impacts the efficacy of genotoxic chemotherapeutic drugs. TGF-ß-activated kinase 1 (TAK1) is a serine/threonine kinase that activates several signaling pathways involved in inducing autophagy and suppressing cell death. Xanthine oxidoreductase (XOR) is a rate-limiting enzyme that converts hypoxanthine to xanthine, and xanthine to uric acid and hydrogen peroxide in the purine catabolism pathway. Recent studies showed that uric acid can bind to TAK1 and prolong its activation. We hypothesized that genotoxic drugs may induce autophagy and apoptosis resistance by activating TAK1 through XOR-generated uric acid. Here, we report that gemcitabine and 5-fluorouracil (5-FU), two genotoxic drugs, induced autophagy in HeLa and HT-29 cells by activating TAK1 and its two downstream kinases, AMP-activated kinase (AMPK) and c-Jun terminal kinase (JNK). XOR knockdown and the XOR inhibitor allopurinol blocked gemcitabine-induced TAK1, JNK, AMPK, and Unc51-like kinase 1 (ULK1)S555 phosphorylation and gemcitabine-induced autophagy. Inhibition of the ATM-Chk pathway, which inhibits genotoxic drug-induced uric acid production, blocked gemcitabine-induced autophagy by inhibiting TAK1 activation. Exogenous uric acid in its salt form, monosodium urate (MSU), induced autophagy by activating TAK1 and its downstream kinases JNK and AMPK. Gene knockdown or the inhibitors of these kinases blocked gemcitabine- and MSU-induced autophagy. Inhibition of autophagy by allopurinol, chloroquine, and 5Z-7-oxozeaenol (5Z), a TAK1-specific inhibitor, enhanced gemcitabine-induced apoptosis. Our study uncovers a previously unrecognized role of XOR in regulating genotoxic drug-induced autophagy and apoptosis and has implications for designing novel therapeutic strategies for cancer treatment.

The Influence of Age and Gender on the Serum XOR Activity, Leukocyte Gene Expression of XOR and MPO, and Biochemical Parameters in Newborn Foals.

One of the initial responses of the host's innate immunity of newborns against pathogens is the use of oxidative enzymes. This study aimed to evaluate changes in serum xanthine oxidoreductase (XOR) activity, the leukocyte myeloperoxidase (MPO) and XOR genes expression, and some biochemical parameters in healthy Darehshuri newborn foals up to 60 days of life. Blood samples were collected from 16 foals at 1, 7, 15, 30, and 60 days and used for detecting XOR activity, biochemical parameters, and also gene expression by real-time RT-PCR. High activity of XOR was observed at birth, explained by physiologic hypoxia during the birth without sex difference. The significant decrease in XOR activity during the following days is probably related to the decreased levels of substrate and feedback inhibition of XOR by uric acid. No correlations were found between XOR activity and uric acid. A positive correlation was observed between XOR mRNA and serum XOR activity in 15 days. The results also indicate higher levels of MPO gene expression at 30 days, which may be associated with their capacity for neutrophil phagocytosis. The concentrations of creatinine, total protein, and albumin were higher at birth, whereas uric acid level was lower (P < 0.05). It can be concluded that XOR activity decreases with age and there is no significant change in its gene expression and MPO expression increases with age and is sex-dependent. There is an influence of age on XOR activity, leukocyte expression of MPO, and biochemical parameters in healthy newborn foals up to 60 days of life.

Mutation of OsSAC3, Encoding the Xanthine Dehydrogenase, Caused Early Senescence in Rice.

In both animals and higher plants, xanthine dehydrogenase is a highly conserved housekeeping enzyme in purine degradation where it oxidizes hypoxanthine to xanthine and xanthine to uric acid. Previous reports demonstrated that xanthine dehydrogenase played a vital role in N metabolism and stress response. Is xanthine dehydrogenase involved in regulating leaf senescence? A recessive early senescence mutant with excess sugar accumulation, ossac3, was isolated previously by screening the EMS-induced mutant library. Here, we show that xanthine dehydrogenase not only plays a role in N metabolism but also involved in regulating carbon metabolism in rice. Based on map-based cloning, OsSAC3 was identified, which encodes the xanthine dehydrogenase. OsSAC3 was constitutively expressed in all examined tissues and the OsSAC3 protein located in the cytoplasm. Transcriptional analysis revealed purine metabolism, chlorophyll metabolism, photosynthesis, sugar metabolism and redox balance were affected in the ossac3 mutant. Moreover, carbohydrate distribution was changed, leading to the accumulation of sucrose and starch in the leaves containing ossac3 on account of decreased expression of OsSWEET3a, OsSWEET6a and OsSWEET14 and oxidized inactivation of starch degradation enzymes in ossac3. These results indicated that OsSAC3 played a vital role in leaf senescence by regulating carbon metabolism in rice.

XDH genotypes through gene-gene interactions with NUDT15 affect azathioprine-induced leukopenia in Chinese patients.

Aim: To investigate whether genotypes of XDH, GMPS and MOCOS were associated with azathioprine-induced adverse drug reaction (ADR) and had the gene-gene interactions with NUDT15 rs116855232 to induce leukopenia. Methods: Patients who had taken azathioprine were recruited. Genotyping of those gene was performed. Risk factor to ADR was analyzed by logistic regression. The generalized multifactor dimensionality reduction (GMDR) was assessed based on gene-gene interactions with ADR. Results: A total of 111 patients were included in this study, all of whom were Han Chinese. XDH rs2295475 was a risk factor of myelotoxicity (p = 0.022). NUDT15 rs116855232 was a risk factor of myelotoxicity, grade ≥2 leukopenia and drug treatment termination (p-values were <0.05). Rs2295475 and rs116855232 had a gene-gene interaction. The model was associated with grade ≥2 leukopenia (OR: 17.99; 95% CI: 4.11-78.81). Conclusion: Combined testing genotype for rs2295475 and rs116855232 could improve the prediction of azathioprine-induced leukopenia.

C1QBP regulates apoptosis of renal cell carcinoma via modulating xanthine dehydrogenase (XDH) mediated ROS generation.

Background: Complement component 1 Q subcomponent binding protein (C1QBP) plays a vital role in the progression and metabolism of cancer. Studies have shown that xanthine dehydrogenase (XDH)-derived reactive oxygen species (ROS) accelerates tumor growth, and also induces mutations or produces cytotoxic effects concurrently. However, the role of C1QBP in metabolism, oxidative stress, and apoptosis of renal cell carcinoma (RCC) cells have not yet been explored. Methods: Metabolomics assay was applied to investigate the role of C1QBP in RCC metabolism. C1QBP knockdown and overexpression cells were established via lentiviral infection and subjected to apoptosis and ROS assay in vitro. RNA stability assay was applied to characterize the mechanism of C1QBP regulating XDH transcription. In vivo, orthotopic tumor xenografts assay was performed to investigate the role of C1QBP in RCC progression. Results: Metabolomics investigation revealed that C1QBP dramatically diminished the hypoxanthine content in RCC cells. C1QBP promoted the mRNA and protein expression of hypoxanthine catabolic enzyme XDH. Meanwhile, C1QBP may affect XDH transcription by regulating the mRNA level of XDH transcriptional stimulators IL-6, TNF-α, and IFN-γ. Moreover, the expression of C1QBP and XDH was lower in RCC tumors compared with the tumor-associated normal tissues, and their down-regulation was associated with higher Fuhrman grade. C1QBP significantly increased ROS level, apoptosis, and the expression of apoptotic proteins such as cleaved caspase-3 and bax/bcl2 via regulating XDH. Conclusion: C1QBP promotes the catabolism of hypoxanthine and elevates the apoptosis of RCC cells by modulating XDH-mediated ROS generation.