Polymer powder processing of cryomilled polycaprolactone for solvent-free generation of homogeneous bioactive tissue engineering scaffolds.

Synthetic polymers used in tissue engineering require functionalization with bioactive molecules to elicit specific physiological reactions. These additives must be homogeneously dispersed in order to achieve enhanced composite mechanical performance and uniform cellular response. This work demonstrates the use of a solvent-free powder processing technique to form osteoinductive scaffolds from cryomilled polycaprolactone (PCL) and tricalcium phosphate (TCP). Cryomilling is performed to achieve micrometer-sized distribution of PCL and reduce melt viscosity, thus improving TCP distribution and improving structural integrity. A breakthrough is achieved in the successful fabrication of 70 weight percentage of TCP into a continuous film structure. Following compaction and melting, PCL/TCP composite scaffolds are found to display uniform distribution of TCP throughout the PCL matrix regardless of composition. Homogeneous spatial distribution is also achieved in fabricated 3D scaffolds. When seeded onto powder-processed PCL/TCP films, mesenchymal stem cells are found to undergo robust and uniform osteogenic differentiation, indicating the potential application of this approach to biofunctionalize scaffolds for tissue engineering applications.

Biomimetic fetal rotation bioreactor for engineering bone tissues-Effect of cyclic strains on upregulation of osteogenic gene expression.

Cells respond to physiological mechanical stresses especially during early fetal development. Adopting a biomimetic approach, it is necessary to develop bioreactor systems to explore the effects of physiologically relevant mechanical strains and shear stresses for functional tissue growth and development. This study introduces a multimodal bioreactor system that allows application of cyclic compressive strains on premature bone grafts that are cultured under biaxial rotation (chamber rotation about 2 axes) conditions for bone tissue engineering. The bioreactor is integrated with sensors for dissolved oxygen levels and pH that allow real-time, non-invasive monitoring of the culture parameters. Mesenchymal stem cells-seeded polycaprolactone-ß-tricalcium phosphate scaffolds were cultured in this bioreactor over 2 weeks in 4 different modes-static, cyclic compression, biaxial rotation, and multimodal (combination of cyclic compression and biaxial rotation). The multimodal culture resulted in 1.8-fold higher cellular proliferation in comparison with the static controls within the first week. Two weeks of culture in the multimodal bioreactor utilizing the combined effects of optimal fluid flow conditions and cyclic compression led to the upregulation of osteogenic genes alkaline phosphatase (3.2-fold), osteonectin (2.4-fold), osteocalcin (10-fold), and collagen type 1 α1 (2-fold) in comparison with static cultures. We report for the first time, the independent and combined effects of mechanical stimulation and biaxial rotation for bone tissue engineering using a bioreactor platform with non-invasive sensing modalities. The demonstrated results show leaning towards the futuristic vision of using a physiologically relevant bioreactor system for generation of autologous bone grafts for clinical implantation.

In vitro cyclic compressive loads potentiate early osteogenic events in engineered bone tissue.

Application of dynamic mechanical loads on bone and bone explants has been reported to enhance osteogenesis and mineralization. To date, published studies have incorporated a range of cyclic strains on 3D scaffolds and platforms to demonstrate the effect of mechanical loading on osteogenesis. However, most of the loading parameters used in these studies do not emulate the in vivo loading conditions. In addition, the scaffolds/platforms are not representative of the native osteoinductive environment of bone tissue and hence may not be entirely accurate to study the in vivo mechanical loading. We hypothesized that biomimicry of physiological loading will potentiate accelerated osteogenesis in bone grafts. In this study, we present a compression bioreactor system that applies cyclic compression to cellular grafts in a controlled manner. Polycaprolactone-ß Tricalcium Phosphate (PCL-TCP) scaffolds seeded with Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSC) were cyclically compressed in bioreactor for a period of 4 weeks at 1 Hz and physiological strain value of 0.22% for 4 h per day. Gene expression studies revealed increased expressions of osteogenesis-related genes (Osteonectin and COL1A1) on day 7 of cyclic loading group relative to its static controls. Cyclic compression resulted in a 3.76-fold increase in the activity of Alkaline Phosphatase (ALP) on day 14 when compared to its static group (p < 0.001). In addition, calcium deposition of cyclic loading group was found to attain saturation on day 14 (1.96 fold higher than its static scaffolds). The results suggested that cyclic, physiological compression of stem cell-seeded scaffolds generated highly mineralized bone grafts. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res Part B: Appl Biomater, 105B: 2366-2375, 2017.

Cryomilling for the fabrication of doxorubicin-containing silica-nanoparticle/polycaprolactone nanocomposite films.

Bionanocomposites need to have a homogeneous distribution of nanomaterials in the polymeric matrix to achieve consistent mechanical and biological functions. However, a significant challenge lies in achieving the homogeneous distribution of nanomaterials, particularly through a solvent-free approach. This report introduces a technology to address this need. Specifically, cryomilling, a solvent-free, low-temperature processing method, was applied to generate a bionanocomposite film with well-dispersed nanoparticles. As a proof-of-concept, polycaprolactone (PCL) and doxorubicin-containing silica nanoparticles (Si-Dox) were processed through cryomilling and subsequently heat pressed to form the PCL/Si-Dox (cPCL/Si-Dox) film. Homogeneous distribution of Si-Dox was observed under both confocal imaging and atomic force microscopy imaging. The mechanical properties of cPCL/Si-Dox were comparable to those of the pure PCL film. Subsequent in vitro release profiles suggested that sustained release of Dox from the cPCL/Si-Dox film was achievable over 50 days. When human cervical cancer cells were seeded directly on these films, uptake of Dox was observed as early as day 1 and significant inhibition of cell growth was recorded on day 5.

Biocompatibility studies and characterization of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyhexanoate)/polycaprolactone blends.

Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyhexanoate) (PHBHHx) is a biocompatible and bioresorbable copolymer that has generated research interest as a bone scaffold material. However, its brittleness and degradation characteristics can be improved upon. We hypothesized that blending with medical-grade polycaprolactone (PCL) can improve degradation and mechanical characteristics. Here, we report the development of solvent-blended PHBHHx/PCL for application as a potential biomaterial for tissue engineering. Enhanced yield strength, yield strain and Young's modulus occurred at 30/70 blend when compared with PHBHHx and PCL. Polarized light microscopy demonstrated PHBHHx and PCL to exist as morphologically and optically distinct phases and, together with thermal analyses, revealed immiscibility. Hydrophilicity improved with the addition of PCL. Accelerated hydrolytic studies suggested predictable behavior of PHBHHx/PCL. Notably, 30/70 blend exhibited similar degradation behavior to PCL in terms of changes in crystallinity, molecular weight, morphology, and mass loss. Finally, human fetal mesenchymal stem cells (hfMSCs) were evaluated on PHBHHx/PCL using live/dead assay and results suggested encouraging hfMSC adhesion and proliferative capacity, with near-confluence occurring in PHBHHx and 30/70 blend after 5 days. Taken together, these are encouraging results for the further development of PHBHHx/PCL as a potential biomaterial for tissue engineering.

Biomimetic three-dimensional anisotropic geometries by uniaxial stretch of poly(ε-caprolactone) films for mesenchymal stem cell proliferation, alignment, and myogenic differentiation.

Anisotropic geometries are critical for eliciting cell alignment to dictate tissue microarchitectures and biological functions. Current fabrication techniques are complex and utilize toxic solvents, hampering their applications for translational research. Here, we present a novel simple, solvent-free, and reproducible method via uniaxial stretching for incorporating anisotropic topographies on bioresorbable films with ambitions to realize stem cell alignment control. Uniaxial stretching of poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) films resulted in a three-dimensional micro-ridge/groove topography (inter-ridge-distance: ~6 µm; ridge-length: ~90 µm; ridge-depth: 200-900 nm) with uniform distribution and controllable orientation by the direction of stretch on the whole film surface. When stretch temperature (Ts) and draw ratio (DR) were increased, the inter-ridge-distance was reduced and ridge-length increased. Through modification of hydrolysis, increased surface hydrophilicity was achieved, while maintaining the morphology of PCL ridge/grooves. Upon seeding human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) on uniaxial-stretched PCL (UX-PCL) films, aligned hMSC organization was obtained. Compared to unstretched films, hMSCs on UX-PCL had larger increase in cellular alignment (>85%) and elongation, without indication of cytotoxicity or reduction in cellular proliferation. This aligned hMSC organization was homogenous and stably maintained with controlled orientation along the ridges on the whole UX-PCL surface for over 2 weeks. Moreover, the hMSCs on UX-PCL had a higher level of myogenic genes' expression than that on the unstretched films. We conclude that uniaxial stretching has potential in patterning film topography with anisotropic structures. The UX-PCL in conjunction with hMSCs could be used as "basic units" to create tissue constructs with microscale control of cellular alignment and elongation for tissue engineering applications.

Polycaprolactone-based fused deposition modeled mesh for delivery of antibacterial agents to infected wounds.

Infections represent a significant source of site morbidity following tissue trauma. Scarring and tissue adhesion remain the challenging issues yet to be solved. Prolonged inflammation and morphology of the re-epithelisated layer are important considerations. We hypothesized that the solution lies not only in the biochemistry of biomaterial but also the micro-architecture of the scaffold used as the matrix for wound healing. Targeted delivery of antibiotics may provide an efficacious means of infection control through adequate release. Here, we study the use of 3-dimensional polycaprolactone-tricalcium phosphate (PCL-TCP) mesh for the delivery of gentamicin sulphate (GS) fabricated using a solvent-free method. PCL-TCP meshes incorporated with varying loads of GS were evaluated in vitro for elution profile, antimicrobial efficacy and cytotoxicity. Results showed that PCL-TCP meshes incorporated with 15 wt% GS (PT15) efficiently eliminate bacteria within 2 h and demonstrate low cytotoxicity. Subsequently, PT15 meshes were evaluated using an infected full thickness wound mice model, and observed to eliminate bacteria in the wounds effectively. Additionally, mice from the PT15 treatment group (TG) showed no observable signs of overall infection through neutrophil count by day 7 and displayed efficient wound healing (94.2% wound area reduction) by day 14. Histology also showed significantly faster healing in TG through neo-collagen deposition and wound re-epithelisation. The meshes from TG were also observed to be expelled from wounds while gauze fibers from CG were integrated into wounds during healing.

Beyond cell capture: antibody conjugation improves hemocompatibility for vascular tissue engineering applications.

Antibody-conjugated surfaces are being studied for cardiovascular implant applications to capture endothelial progenitor cells and promote endothelialization. However, despite the large amount of literature on endothelial progenitor cell capture efficiency, little effort has been made to understand acute blood responses to the modified surfaces. We hypothesize that CD34 antibody conjugation passivates surfaces against procoagulatory events, and thus improves hemocompatibility. To test this hypothesis, we subjected the modified films to hemocompatibility tests to evaluate contact activation, platelet adhesion and activation, as well as whole blood clotting response to the films. Here, we demonstrate the alteration of blood responses due to polyacrylic acid (PAAc) engraftment and subsequent antibody conjugation on biaxially stretched polycaprolactone (PCL) films. Compared to PCL, PAAc-engrafted PCL (PCL-PAAc) and CD34-antibody-conjugated films (PCL-PAAC-CD34) resulted in a four- to ninefold (p < 0.001) reduced platelet activation. PCL-PAAc, however, resulted in an increased contact activation on thromboelastography, and a poorer blood compatibility index assay (43.4% +/- 2.3% vs. 60.9% +/- 2.5%, p < 0.05). PCL-PAAC-CD34, on the other hand, resulted in delayed clot formation (r = 19.3 +/- 1.5, k = 6.8 +/- 0.6 min) and reduced platelet adhesion and activation, and yielded the highest blood compatibility index score, indicating least thrombogenicity (69.3% +/- 3.2%). Our results suggest that CD34 antibody conjugation significantly improved the hemocompatibility of PAAc-conjugated PCL.