Patch test-relevant concentrations of metal salts cause localized cytotoxicity, including apoptosis, in skin ex vivo.

BACKGROUND: Metal alloys containing contact sensitizers (nickel, palladium, titanium) are extensively used in medical devices, in particular dentistry and orthopaedic surgery. The skin patch test is used to test for metal allergy. OBJECTIVE: To determine whether metal salts, when applied to freshly excised skin at patch test-relevant concentrations and using a method which mimics skin patch testing, cause in changes in the epidermis and dermis. METHODS: Tissue histology, apoptosis, metabolic activity, and inflammatory cytokine release were determined for two nickel salts, two palladium salts, and four titanium salts. RESULTS: Patch test-relevant concentrations of all metal salts caused localized cytotoxicity. This was observed as epidermis separation at the basement membrane zone, formation of vacuoles, apoptotic nuclei, decreased metabolic activity, and (pro)inflammatory cytokine release. Nickel(II) sulfate hexahydrate, nickel(II) chloride hexahydrate, titanium(IV) bis(ammonium lactato)dihydroxide, and calcium titanate were highly cytotoxic. Palladium(II) chloride, sodium tetrachloropalladate(II), titanium(IV) isopropoxide, and titanium(IV) dioxide showed mild cytotoxicity. CONCLUSION: The patch test in itself may be damaging to the skin of the patient being tested. These results need further verification with biopsies obtained during clinical patch testing. The future challenge is to remain above the elicitation threshold at noncytotoxic metal concentrations.

Maximum impact heights of currently used mouthguards in field hockey.

BACKGROUND/AIM: The effectiveness of mouthguards used in field hockey is unknown. The aim of this study was to compare the maximum impact heights between currently used mouthguards in field hockey to prevent dental injury. METHODS: Four boil-and-bite mouthguards (Dita, Shock Doctor, SISU, and Stag) and one custom-made mouthguard (Elysee) were tested for maximum impact height. A hockey ball was released in a tube from increasing heights onto plaster and polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) dental models. Models were tested without mouthguard as a control. The experiment was repeated 10 times per mouthguard and for the control on each dental model. The maximum impact height for when the dental model broke was used to calculate the speed. The mouthguards and controls were compared. RESULTS: The maximum impact heights (median [25%-75%] in meters) onto plaster dental models were as follows: control 0.23 (0.15-0.25), Dita 0.35 (0.30-0.35), Elysee 0.45 (0.34-0.50), Shock Doctor 0.68 (0.60-0.74), SISU 0.23 (0.20-0.26), and Stag 0.35 (0.35-0.46). The maximum impact height for Shock Doctor was significantly higher than all other mouthguards and the control (all P < .05). The maximum impact heights onto PMMA dental models were as follows: control 2.00 (1.30-2.50), Dita 3.80 (2.65-6.95), Elysee 3.30 (2.30-4.20), Shock Doctor 6.20 (2.80-8.10), SISU 2.60 (1.90-3.15), and Stag 3.90 (1.25-5.15). The maximum impact height for Shock Doctor was significantly higher than for SISU, Stag, and the control (all P < .05), but did not differ significantly from Dita (P = .43) and Elysee (P = .12). CONCLUSION: Shock Doctor had the highest maximum impact height compared to the other mouthguards and appears to be the most effective mouthguard tested in this study.

Anti-erosive effects of fluoride and phytosphingosine: an in vitro study.

A selection of commercially available products containing stannous fluoride (SnF2 )/sodium fluoride (NaF), SnF2 /amorphous calcium phosphate (ACP), SnF2 /NaF/ACP, tin (Sn)/fluorine (F)/chitosan were compared with phytosphingosine (PHS) with respect to their anti-erosive properties in vitro. One-hundred and twenty bovine enamel specimens were immersed in the respective product slurries for 2 min, twice daily. The formulations were diluted with either remineralization solution or artificial saliva. After each treatment, an erosive challenge was performed for 10 min, twice daily, using citric acid, pH 3.4. The specimens were stored in remineralization solution or artificial saliva until the next treatment-erosion challenge. After 10 d, tissue loss was determined using profilometry. Enamel softening was determined through surface microhardness measurements. Tissue-loss values (measured in µm and expressed as mean ± SD) for PHS, SnF2 /NaF, SnF2 /ACP, SnF2 /ACP/NaF, and Sn/F/chitosan treatment groups and for the negative-control group, were, respectively, 35.6 ± 2.8, 15.8 ± 1.8, 22.1 ± 2.0, 22.9 ± 1.8, 16.2 ± 1.2, and 51.2 ± 4.4 in the presence of remineralization solution and 31.7 ± 3.3, 15.6 ± 2.9, 16.5 ± 2.7, 16.8 ± 2.1, 13.1 ± 3.0, and 50.7 ± 2.8 in the presence of artificial saliva. There were no significant differences in surface microhardness measurements between the treatment groups. In conclusion, PHS resulted in a significant reduction of tissue loss compared with the negative control, but in comparison, the toothpastes containing Sn(2+) and F(-) ions were significantly more effective compared with PHS.

Effect of crown retention systems and loading direction on the stress magnitude of posterior implant-supported restorations: A 3D-FEA.

This study aimed to investigate the effect of four retention systems for implant-supported posterior crowns under compressive loading using three-dimensional finite element analysis. A morse-taper dental implant (4.1 × 10 mm) was designed with Computer Aided Design software based on non-uniform rational B-spline surfaces. According to International Organization for Standardization 14,801:2016, the implant was positioned at 3 mm above the crestal level. Then four models were designed with different crown retention systems: screw-retained (A), cement-retained (B), lateral-screw-retained (C), and modified lateral-screw-retained (D). The models were imported to the analysis software and mesh was generated based on the coincident nodes between the juxtaposed lines. For the boundary conditions, two loads (600 N) were applied (axial to the implant fixture and oblique at 30°) totaling 8 conditions according to retention design and loading. The von-Mises stress analysis showed that different retention systems modify the stress magnitude in the implant-supported posterior crown. There is a similar stress pattern in the implant threads. However, models C and D presented higher stress concentrations in the crown margin in comparison with A and B. The oblique loading highly increased the stress magnitude for all models. In the simulated conditions, part of the stress was concentrated at the lateral screw under axial loading for model C and oblique loading for model D. The results indicate a possible new failure origin for crown retained using lateral screws in comparison to conventional cement-retained or screw-retained systems.

Microtensile bond strength of three simplified adhesive systems to caries-affected dentin.

PURPOSE: The purpose of the study was to determine the microtensile bond strength of three different simplified adhesive systems to caries-affected dentin. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Fifteen extracted human molars with primary carious lesions were ground flat until dentin was exposed. Soft caries-infected dentin was excavated with the help of caries detector dye. On the remaining hard dentin, a standardized smear layer was created by polishing with 600-grit SiC paper. Teeth were divided into three groups and treated with one of the three tested adhesives: Adper Scotchbond 1 XT (3M ESPE), a 2-step etch-andrinse adhesive, Clearfil S3 Bond (Kuraray), a 1-step self-etching or all-in-one adhesive, and Clearfil SE Bond (Kuraray), a 2-step self-etching adhesive. Five-mm-thick composite buildups (Z-250, 3M ESPE) were built and light cured. After water storage for 24 h at 37ºC, the bonded specimens were sectioned into bars (1.0 x 1.0 mm; n = 20 to 30). Microtensile bond strength of normal dentin specimens and caries-affected dentin specimens was measured in a universal testing machine (crosshead speed = 1 mm/min). Data were analyzed using two-way ANOVA and Tukey's post-hoc test (p < 0.05). RESULTS: No significant differences in bond strength values to normal dentin between the three adhesives were found. Adper Scotchbond 1 XT and Clearfil S3 Bond showed significantly lower bond strength values to caries-affected dentin. For Clearfil SE Bond, bond strength values to normal and caries-affected dentin were not significantly different. CONCLUSION: All the tested simplified adhesives showed similar bond strength values to normal dentin. For the tested 2-step etch-and-rinse adhesive and the all-in-one adhesive, the bond strength values to caries-affected dentin were lower than to normal dentin.

Assessment of metal sensitizer potency with the reconstructed human epidermis IL-18 assay.

According to the new EU Medical Devices (MDR) legislation coming into effect in 2017, manufactures will have to comply with higher standards of quality and safety for medical devices in order to meet common safety concerns regarding such products. Metal alloys are extensively used in dentistry and medicine (e.g. orthopedic surgery and cardiology) even though clinical experience suggests that many metals are sensitizers. The aim of this study was to further test the applicability domain of the in vitro reconstructed human epidermis (RhE) IL-18 assay developed to identify contact allergens and in doing so: i) determine whether different metal salts, representing leachables from metal alloys used in medical devices, could be correctly labelled and classified; and ii) assess the ability of different salts for the same metal to penetrate the skin stratum corneum. Twenty eight chemicals including 15 metal salts were topically exposed to RhE. Nickel, chrome, gold, palladium were each tested in two different salt forms, and titanium in 4 different salt forms. Metal salts were labelled (YES/NO) as sensitizer if a threshold of more than 5 fold IL18 release was reached. The in vitro estimation of expected sensitization induction level (potency) was assessed by interpolating in vitro EC50 and IL-18 SI2 with LLNA EC3 and human NOEL values from standard reference curves generated using DNCB (extreme) and benzocaine (weak). Metal salts, in contrast to other chemical sensitizers and with the exception of potassium dichromate (VI) and cobalt (II) chloride, were not identified as contact allergens since they only induced a small or no increase in IL-18 production. This finding was not related to a lack of stratum corneum skin penetration since EC50 values (decrease in metabolic activity; MTT assay) were obtained after topical RhE exposure to 8 of the 15 metal salts. For nickel, gold and palladium salts, differences in EC50 values between two salts for the same metal could not be attributed to differences in molarity or valency. For chrome salts the difference in EC50 values may be explained by different valencies (VI vs. III), but not by molarity. In general, metal salts were classified as weaker sensitizers than was indicated from in vivo LLNA EC3 and NOEL data. Our in vitro results show that metals are problematic chemicals to test, in line with the limited number of standardized human and animal studies, which are not currently considered adequate to predict systemic hypersensitivity or autoimmunity, and despite clinical experience, which clearly shows that many metals are indeed a risk to human health.

Influence of temperature on volumetric shrinkage and contraction stress of dental composites.

OBJECTIVES: To test the influence of temperature on contraction stress and volumetric shrinkage of Clearfil AP-X, Venus Diamond, Premise and Filtek Z250. METHODS: Volumetric shrinkage measurements were carried out using mercury dilatometry, while a constraint tensilometer set-up was used for the measurement of contraction stress. Measurements were carried out with a composite temperature of 23, 30, 37, and 44°C. RESULTS: Volumetric shrinkage increases with higher temperature. Premise and Venus Diamond show lower volumetric shrinkage than Clearfil AP-X and Filtek Z250. Clearfil AP-X shows the highest contraction stress which slightly increases with higher temperatures. The other composites only show an increase in contraction stress between 23 and 30°C. SIGNIFICANCE: Heating of dental composites results in a higher volumetric shrinkage. However, the contraction stress does not change significantly due to increased temperature above 30°C.

Thermal dimensional behavior of dental ceramics.

The aim of this study was to characterize the relation of dimensional changes of dental ceramic materials as function of temperature. The thermal dimensional behavior of one glass ceramic core, four commercially available veneering porcelains and two experimental veneering porcelain materials was determined on cooling from 450 degrees C to 20 degrees C by means of a vertical differential pushrod thermal dilatometer. The thermal dimensional behavior of the ceramic materials was expressed in three different ways: as linear relation with a linear line fitting procedure; as non-linear relation by a quadratic curve fitting procedure and according to ISO 9693 by a thermal expansion coefficient. For all ceramic materials except the one consisting of aluminum oxide fillers, the thermal dimensional behavior is best described with the polynomial function: Deltal/l = C + alpha1T + alpha2T2. The description of the thermal expansion coefficient according to the ISO standard on metal is not appropriate for the prediction of a thermal incompatibility of ceramic materials. Except for Vitadur Alpha, the ceramics materials tested showed non-linear expansion; their thermal dimensional behavior can be best described according to the quadratic relation method, second by the linear relation, third as recommended by ISO.

Influence of polymerization mode and C-factor on cohesive strength of dual-cured resin cements.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study is to determine the influence of the C-factor and the mode of polymerization on the cohesive strength of various dual-cure resin cements. METHODS: Three curing conditions were tested; chemical curing with free shrinkage conditions (C=0), and constraint shrinkage conditions (C=25), and dual-curing with free shrinkage conditions (C=0). Opaque polyethylene, brass (pretreated with Clearfil SE bond), and transparent polyethylene tubes respectively, were filled with the different cements. The tubes were 20mm long with an inner diameter of 1.6 or 1.8mm. Five cements, DC Core Automix, Panavia F 2.0, Maxcem, Multilink, and RelyX Unicem, were tested with ten specimens per group. The specimens were trimmed to an hour-glass shape with a neck diameter of 1mm, stored in water (37°C, 24h), and subjected to microtensile testing (1mmmin(-1)). SEM analysis was carried out on chemically cured samples of DC Core Automix C=0 and C=25. Data were statistically analyzed (Two-way ANOVA, Tukey's post hoc test, p<0.05). RESULTS: Most cements showed no significant differences between the curing modes. A high C-factor negatively influences the cohesive strength of some cements. SEM analysis shows that chemical curing of DC Core Automix in a high C-factor environment leads to more and larger microvoids in the cement. SIGNIFICANCE: Constraint shrinkage conditions, i.e. a high C-factor, can negatively influence the physical properties of a dual-cured resin cement, which would clinically be the case in the confined space of a root canal or post space preparation.

The influence of pigments on the slow crack growth in dental zirconia.

OBJECTIVES: Partially yttria stabilized zirconium oxide was introduced as core material for core-veneered full ceramic dental restorations, because of its biological inertness, high mechanical strength, and toughness. In order to improve the esthetical possibilities pigments in the core are introduced, that might influence the stabilization by yttrium. METHODS: Double torsion tests were performed to study the influence of the pigments in the core ceramics on its fracture toughness. RESULTS: A significant difference was observed in the stress intensity factor (K(10)) as well as in the R-curve behavior between the ceramic with and without pigment. SIGNIFICANCE: The lower stress intensity factor for the ceramic with pigment could affect the clinical performance of dental zirconia restorations with this material.

Bridging the gap between clinical failure and laboratory fracture strength tests using a fractographic approach.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to analyze and to compare the fracture type and the stress at failure of clinically fractured zirconia-based all ceramic restorations with that of morphologically similar replicas tested in a laboratory setup. METHODS: Replicas of the same shape and dimensions were made for 19 crowns and 17 fixed partial dentures, all made of veneered zirconia frameworks, which fractured during intra-oral service. The replicas were statically loaded by applying axial load in a universal testing machine. The principles of fractography were used to identify the location and the dimensions of the critical crack and to estimate the stress at failure. Failure was classified according to origin and type (P<0.05 was considered significant). RESULTS: Clinically fractured restorations failed due to either: delamination of the veneer ceramic (28.2+/-9MPa), defects at core veneer interface (27.7+/-6MPa), the generation of Hoop stresses (884.3+/-266MPa), radial cracking (831MPa), or fracture of the connector (971+/-343MPa). The replicas failed by mainly by cone cracking of the veneer ceramic (52.4+/-34.8MPa) or by fracture of the connector (1098.9+/-259MPa). The estimated stress at failure was significantly higher for the replicas compared to the clinically fractured restorations (F=6.8, P<0.01). SIGNIFICANCE: Within limitations of this study, careful design of fracture strength test would lead to more clinically relevant data. The performance of zirconia veneered restorations could be further improved with careful design considerations.