Importance of core microRNA pathway genes and microRNAs associated with the defense of Odontotermes formosanus (Shiraki) against Serratia marcescens infection.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are noncoding small regulatory RNAs involved in diverse biological processes. Odontotermes formosanus (Shiraki) is a polyphagous pest that causes economic damage to agroforestry. Serratia marcescens is a bacterium with great potential for controlling this insect. However, knowledge about the miRNA pathway and the role of miRNAs in O. formosanus defense against SM1 is limited. In this study, OfAgo1, OfDicer1 and OfDrosha were differentially expressed in different castes and tissues. SM1 infection affected the expression of all three genes in O. formosanus. Then, we used specific double-stranded RNAs to silence OfAgo1, OfDicer1 and OfDrosha. Knockdown of these genes enhanced the virulence of SM1 to O. formosanus, suggesting that miRNAs were critical in the defense of O. formosanus against SM1. Furthermore, we sequenced miRNAs from SM1-infected and uninfected O. formosanus. 33 differentially expressed (DE) miRNAs were identified, whereby 22 were upregulated and 11 were downregulated. Finally, the miRNA-mRNA networks were constructed, which further suggested the important role of miRNAs in the defense of O. formosanus against SM1. Totally, O. formosanus miRNA core genes defend against SM1 infection by regulating miRNA expression. This study elucidates the interactions between O. formosanus and SM1 and provides new theories for biological control.

Multifunctional Low-Generation Dendrimer Nanogels as an Emerging Probe for Tumor-Specific CT/MR Dual-Modal Imaging.

The development of nanoprobes that have amplified enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect is crucial for their precise cancer diagnosis performance. Here, we present the development of functional dendrimer-based nanogels (DNGs) with the generation three primary amine-terminated poly(amidoamine) (PAMAM) dendrimers (G3·NH2) cross-linked by N,N'-bis(acryloyl) cystamine (BAC). The DNGs were prepared through a Michael addition reaction between G3·NH2 dendrimers and BAC via an inverse microemulsion method and entrapped with gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) to form Au-DNGs. The Au-DNGs were sequentially modified with diethylenetriamine penta-acetic acid (DTPA)-gadolinium (Gd) complex, poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)-linked arginine-glycine-aspartic (RGD) peptide, and 1,3-propanesultone (1,3-PS). The formed multifunctional RGD-Gd@Au-DNGs-PS (R-G@ADP) possessing an average diameter of 122 nm are colloidally stable and display a high X-ray attenuation coefficient, excellent r1 relaxivity (9.13 mM-1 s-1), desired protein resistance rendered by the zwitterionic modification, and cytocompatibility. With the targeting specificity mediated by RGD and the much better tumor penetration capability than the counterpart material of single dendrimer-entrapped Au NPs, the developed multifunctional R-G@ADP enable targeted and enhanced computed tomography (CT)/magnetic resonance (MR) dual-modal imaging of a pancreatic tumor model in vivo. The current work demonstrates a unique design of targeted and zwitterionic DNGs with prolonged blood circulation time as an emerging nanoprobe for specific tumor CT/MR imaging through amplified passive EPR effect.

Comparative analysis of anchorage strength and histomorphometric changes after implantation of miniscrews in adults and adolescents: an experimental study in Beagles.

OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to explore the differences in anchorage strength and histomorphometric changes in orthodontic miniscrews between adult and adolescent beagles. MATERIAL AND METHOD: Six adult beagles and six young beagles were used as experimental subjects, and eight miniscrews were symmetrically placed in the posterior mandible of each dog. Measurement of the displacement (mm) of two adjacent miniscrews after load application was performed to compare the anchorage strength between the adult and adolescent groups. Three intravital bone fluorochromes (oxytetracycline, calcein green, xylenol orange) were administered postoperatively to mark the active bone-forming surface. Subsequently, the mineral apposition rate and bone-implant contact ratio were measured for dynamic and static histomorphometry. Finally, the expression levels of the RANKL/OPG ratio were evaluated by immunohistochemistry. RESULTS: The average displacement of miniscrews in the adult group was significantly less than that in the adolescent group after load application. For histomorphometry analysis, the mineral exposure rate in the adolescent group was higher than that in the adult group with or without force application. In addition, more fractures and new bone formation but deceased bone-implant contact ratios were observed in the adolescent group than in the adult group. The ratio of RANKL/OPG expression increased more in the adolescent group than in the adult group. CONCLUSION: Miniscrews do not remain in the same position as skeletal anchors, and the amount of displacement was higher in adolescent group than that in adult group, reflecting the weaker anchorage strength of miniscrews in adolescents due to the higher bone turnover rate and active bone remodelling. Therefore, it is feasible to apply orthodontic loading to the miniscrews in adult patients earlier, even immediately, but it is recommended to wait a period for the adolescents.

Prophenoloxidase of Odontotermes formosanus (Shiraki) (Blattodea: Termitidae) Is a Key Gene in Melanization and Has a Defensive Role during Bacterial Infection.

Melanization mediated by the prophenoloxidase (PPO)-activating system is an important innate immunity to fight pathogens in insects. In this study, the in vitro time-dependent increase in the intensity of melanization and phenoloxidase (PO) activity from the hemolymph of Odontotermes formosanus (Shiraki) challenged by pathogenic bacteria was detected. PPO is one of the key genes in melanization pathway, whereas the molecular characteristics and functions of O. formosanus PPO are unclear. The OfPPO gene was cloned and characterized. The open reading frame of OfPPO is 2085 bp in length and encodes a 79.497 kDa protein with 694 amino acids. A BLASTx search and phylogenetic analyses revealed that OfPPO shares a high degree of homology to the Blattodea PPOs. Moreover, real-time fluorescent quantitative PCR analysis showed that OfPPO is ubiquitously expressed in all castes and tissues examined, with the highest expression in workers and variable expression patterns in tissues of different termite castes. Furthermore, the expression of OfPPO was significantly induced in O. formosanus infected by pathogenic bacteria. Intriguingly, in combination with silencing of OfPPO expression, pathogenic bacteria challenge caused greatly increased mortality of O. formosanus. These results suggest that OfPPO plays a role in defense against bacteria and highlight the novel termite control strategy combining pathogenic bacteria application with termite PPO silencing.

A Novel Orthodontic Extraction Method for Removal of Impacted Mandibular Third Molars in Close Proximity to Inferior Alveolar Nerve.

PURPOSE: The present study has proposed a novel orthodontic extraction method with a removable appliance to avoid inferior alveolar nerve (IAN) injury during impacted mandibular third molar removal. PATIENTS AND METHODS: In the present study, 16 patients were enrolled and divided into 2 groups per patient choice. In the orthodontic extraction group (n = 8), a removable appliance was first applied to move the root tips away from the IAN, and the tooth was subsequently removed. In the traditional extraction group (n = 8), each patient had the tooth removed immediately by the same surgeon. RESULTS: All teeth were extracted successfully. All 8 patients in the orthodontic extraction group had had their impacted mandibular third molar removed without IAN injury after surgery. In contrast, 4 patients in the traditional extraction group had experienced transient IAN injury, and the symptoms persisted for 2 to 8 weeks. None of the patients experienced permanent IAN damage. CONCLUSIONS: Orthodontic extraction with a removable appliance to separate the IAN and impacted mandibular third molar could be a good alternative treatment option to avoid IAN injury in high-risk cases.

[Povidone-iodine versus the benzethonium chloride wipe for penile skin disinfection before semen collection from sperm donors].

Objective: To study the influence of povidone-iodine (PI) versus that of the benzethonium chloride wipe (BCW) on semen collection and semen quality of sperm donors undergoing penile skin disinfection and provide some evidence for the selection of disinfection methods for semen collection. METHODS: We used PI from August to December 2015 and BCWs from January to July 2016 for penile skin disinfection before semen collection, with two samples from each donor, one collected with and the other without penis skin disinfection (the blank control group). After semen collection, we conducted a questionnaire investigation on the influence of the two disinfection methods on semen collection and compared the semen parameters between the two groups of sperm donors. RESULTS: Totally, 185 sperm donors were included in this study, of whom 63 underwent penile skin disinfection with PI and the other 122 with BCWs before semen collection. Statistically significant differences were found between the PI and BCW groups in the adaptability to the disinfectant and rigid disinfection procedures (P <0.05), but not in the other items of the questionnaire (P >0.05). Compared with the sperm donors of the blank control group, those of the PI group showed statistically significant difference in the percentage of progressively motile sperm (PMS) (ï¼»63.02 ± 3.18ï¼½% vs ï¼»61.45 ± 4.78ï¼½%, P<0.05), but not in the abstinence time (ï¼»4.97 ± 1.79ï¼½ vs ï¼»4.7 ± 0.94ï¼½ d, P >0.05), semen volume (ï¼»4.11 ± 1.54ï¼½ vs ï¼»4.15 ± 1.61ï¼½ ml, P >0.05), sperm concentration (ï¼»110 ± 29.6ï¼½ vs ï¼»107.5 ± 31.79ï¼½ ×106/ml, P >0.05), or total sperm count (ï¼»439.10 ± 170.13ï¼½ vs ï¼»434.02 ± 186.91ï¼½ ×106/ejaculate, P >0.05), while those of the BCW group exhibited no remarkable difference in any of the above parameters (P >0.05). Among the samples with abnormal semen quality, significantly fewer were found with abnormal PMS in the BCW than in the PI group (1.64% ï¼»2/122ï¼½ vs 9.68% ï¼»6/62ï¼½, P <0.05). However, there were no significant differences between the PI and BCW groups in the abnormal semen volume, abnormal sperm concentration, or the rate of semen bacterial contamination (P >0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Before semen collection from donors, penile skin disinfection with povidone-iodine may affect both the semen collection process and the quality of donor sperm, while the benzethonium chloride wipe can reduce the influence on the semen collection process and does not affect the semen parameters.

A prospective study on the safety and effectiveness of using lauromacrogol for ablation of pancreatic cystic neoplasms with the aid of EUS.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: With the development of imaging techniques, the detection rate of pancreatic cystic neoplasms (PCNs) has increased. The surgical morbidity and mortality rates of PCNs are quite high. This study is intended to evaluate the safety and effectiveness of a minimally invasive treatment, EUS-guided PCN ablation with lauromacrogol. METHODS: From April 2015 to May 2016, 120 patients with PCNs were enrolled to undergo EUS. We prospectively studied 29 of the 120 patients who underwent EUS-guided ablation with lauromacrogol. The follow-up contrast-enhanced CT or magnetic resonance image was conducted at 3 months and then 6 months after ablation. We determined the effectiveness of ablation by the changes in the volume of the cysts. RESULTS: Twenty-nine patients were enrolled in the study, and 7 of them underwent a second ablation; therefore, there were 36 treatments. The mean tumor diameter was 28.6 ± 14.5 mm preoperation, whereas the diameter postoperation was 13.4 ± 10.5 mm. Mild pancreatitis occurred in 2 patients and moderate fever in 1; they occurred in the cysts located in the head/uncinate. Among the 29 treatments with complete follow-up of 9 months (range, 3-15), 11 had complete response and 9 had partial response. The resolution rate was 37.9% (11/29) with 36.4% (8/22) in the cysts of the head/uncinate and 42.9% (3/7) in the body/tail (P > .05). CONCLUSIONS: EUS-guided PCN ablation with lauromacrogol is safe and efficient. Adverse event rates seem to be higher in the head/uncinate than in the body/tail, but their resolution rates are similar. Further studies involving larger populations and longer follow-ups are warranted.

Enhanced repair of segmental bone defects in rabbit radius by porous tantalum scaffolds modified with the RGD peptide.

Fast and stable repair of segmental bone defects remains a challenge for clinical orthopedic surgery. In recent years, porous tantalum has been widely applied in clinical orthopedics for low modulus of elasticity, with three-dimensional microstructures similar to cancellous bone and excellent biocompatibility. To further improve bone the repairing ability of porous tantalum, the cyclo(-RGDfK-) peptide was coated on the surface of porous tantalum scaffolds. A model of 15 mm segmental defect was made at the midshaft of right radius in New Zealand White rabbits. In the experimental group, defects were implanted (press-fit) using porous tantalum scaffolds modified with cyclo(-RGDfK-) peptide. Control animals were implanted with non-modified porous tantalum scaffolds or xenogeneic cancellous bone scaffolds, respectively. No implant was provided for the blank group. Bone repair was assessed by X-ray and histological observations at 4, 8, and 16 weeks post-operation, with biomechanical tests and micro-computed tomography performed at 16 weeks post-surgery. The results showed that bone formation was increased at the interface and inside the inner pores of modified porous tantalum scaffolds than those of non-modified porous tantalum scaffolds; biomechanical properties in the modified porous tantalum group were superior to those of the non-modified porous tantalum and xenogeneic cancellous bone groups, while new bone volume fractions using micro-computed tomography analysis were similar between the modified porous tantalum and xenogeneic cancellous bone groups. Our findings suggested that modified porous tantalum scaffolds had enhanced repairing ability in segmental bone defect in rabbit radius, and may serve as a potential material for repairing large bone defects.

Update on Phytochemistry and Pharmacology of Naturally Occurring Resveratrol Oligomers.

Resveratrol oligomers (REVs), a major class of stilbenoids, are biosynthesized by regioselective oxidative coupling of two to eight units of resveratrol monomer. Due to their unique structures and pleiotropic biological activities, natural product chemists are increasingly focusing on REVs in the last few decades. This study presents a detailed and thorough examination of REVs, including chemical structures, natural resources, and biological activities, during the period of 2010-2017. Ninety-two new REVs compounds, including 39 dimers, 23 trimers, 13 tetramers, six resveratrol monomers, six hexamers, four pentamers, and one octamer, have been reported from the families of Dipterocarpaceae, Paeoniaceae, Vitaceae, Leguminosae, Gnetaceae, Cyperaceae, Polygonaceae Gramineae, and Poaceae. Amongst these families, Dipterocarpaceae, with 50 REVs, accounts for the majority, and seven genera of Dipterocarpaceae are involved, including Vatica, Vateria, Shorea, Hopea, Neobalanocarpus, Dipterocarpus, and Dryobalanops. These REVs have shown a wide range of bioactivities. Pharmacological studies have mainly focused on potential efficacy on tumors, bacteria, Alzheimer's disease, cardiovascular diseases, and others. The information updated in this review might assist further research and development of novel REVs as potential therapeutic agents.

Low energy consumption vortex wave flow membrane bioreactor.

In order to reduce the energy consumption and membrane fouling of the conventional membrane bioreactor (MBR), a kind of low energy consumption vortex wave flow MBR was exploited based on the combination of biofilm process and membrane filtration process, as well as the vortex wave flow technique. The experimental results showed that the vortex wave flow state in the membrane module could be formed when the Reynolds number (Re) of liquid was adjusted between 450 and 1,050, and the membrane flux declined more slowly in the vortex wave flow state than those in the laminar flow state and turbulent flow state. The MBR system was used to treat domestic wastewater under the condition of vortex wave flow state for 30 days. The results showed that the removal efficiency for CODcr and NH3-N was 82% and 98% respectively, and the permeate quality met the requirement of 'Water quality standard for urban miscellaneous water consumption (GB/T 18920-2002)'. Analysis of the energy consumption of the MBR showed that the average energy consumption was 1.90 ± 0.55 kWh/m3 (permeate), which was only two thirds of conventional MBR energy consumption.

Start-up performance of Anammox process in a fixed bed reactor (FBR) filled with honeycomb-like polypropylene carriers.

Novel honeycomb-like carriers, made of polypropylene, were applied to enhance biomass retention capacity so as to improve Anammox start-up performance in a fixed bed reactor (FBR). The reactor was operated for 3 months. On day 45, Anammox activity appeared. After 61 days' operation, the removal efficiencies of ammonium and nitrite were both over 91% based on 70 mg N L(-1) of the influent ammonium and influent nitrite, indicating that a remarkable Anammox activity was attained. A final specific Anammox activity of 0.12 g NH4(+)-N gVSS(-1) d(-1) was reached (VSS: volatile suspended solids). The FBR showed a good capacity for resisting shock loading and was more able to resist shock loading of nitrogen concentration than resist hydraulic shock loading. Phylogenetic analysis showed that Candidatus Brocadia anammoxidans' and Candidatus Kuenenia stuttgartiensis' were detected in the mature biofilm, and Candidatus Brocadia anammoxidans' was the dominant Anammox strain. Candidatus Kuenenia stuttgartiensis' played a positive role in the reactor performance, as it could consumed nitrite quickly and efficiently so as to avoid an adverse effect of temporary nitrite accumulation. The results showed that the honeycomb-like carriers were suitable for start-up of Anammox.

Aerobic oxidation of alcohols and the synthesis of benzoxazoles catalyzed by a cuprocupric coordination polymer (Cu(+)-CP) assisted by TEMPO.

A Cu(+)-CP based on the tetranuclear unit {[(HSQPA)2Cu4(bipy)4]·2H2O}n·2nH2O has been constructed through Cu(2+) salt, 2-(sulfonylquinlium-8-yloxy)phthalic acid (H3SQPA), and 4,4'-bipyridine (bipy). This Cu(+)-CP combined with 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl as the cocatalyst is an effective catalyst for aerobic oxidation of alcohols and the synthesis of benzoxazoles and can be recycled at least four times without losing its catalytic activity.

A Big Prospect for Hydrogel Nano-System in Glioma.

Patients diagnosed with glioma typically face a limited life expectancy (around 15 months on average), a bleak prognosis, and a high likelihood of recurrence. As such, glioma is recognized as a significant form of malignancy. Presently, the treatment options for glioma include traditional approaches such as surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy. Regrettably, the efficacy of these treatments has been less than optimal. Nevertheless, a promising development in glioma treatment lies in the use of hydrogel nano-systems as sophisticated delivery systems. These nano-systems have demonstrated exceptional therapeutic effects in the treatment of glioma by various responsive ways, including temperature-response, pH-response, liposome-response, ROS-response, light-response, and enzyme-response. This study seeks to provide a comprehensive summary of both the therapeutic application of hydrogel nano-systems in managing glioma and the underlying immune action mechanisms.

Biomimetic Dual-Target Theranostic Nanovaccine Enables Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Chemo/Chemodynamic/Immune Therapy of Glioma.

Development of theranostic nanomedicines to tackle glioma remains to be challenging. Here, we present an advanced blood-brain barrier (BBB)-crossing nanovaccine based on cancer cell membrane-camouflaged poly(N-vinylcaprolactam) (PVCL) nanogels (NGs) incorporated with MnO2 and doxorubicin (DOX). We show that the disulfide bond-cross-linked redox-responsive PVCL NGs can be functionalized with dermorphin and imiquimod R837 through cell membrane functionalization. The formed functionalized PVCL NGs having a size of 220 nm are stable, can deplete glutathione, and responsively release both Mn2+ and DOX under the simulated tumor microenvironment to exert the chemo/chemodynamic therapy mediated by DOX and Mn2+, respectively. The combined therapy induces tumor immunogenic cell death to maturate dendritic cells (DCs) and activate tumor-killing T cells. Further, the nanovaccine composed of cancer cell membranes as tumor antigens, R837 as an adjuvant with abilities of DC maturation and macrophages M1 repolarization, and MnO2 with Mn2+-mediated stimulator of interferon gene activation of tumor cells can effectively act on both targets of tumor cells and immune cells. With the dermorphin-mediated BBB crossing, cell membrane-mediated homologous tumor targeting, and Mn2+-facilitated magnetic resonance (MR) imaging property, the designed NG-based theranostic nanovaccine enables MR imaging and combination chemo-, chemodynamic-, and imnune therapy of orthotopic glioma with a significantly decreased recurrence rate.

Thermal and mechanical properties of polyethylene glycol (PEG)-modified lignin/polylactic acid (PLA) biocomposites.

In this study, a method was proposed to prepare biocomposites from polylactic acid (PLA) and polyethylene glycol (PEG)-modified lignin using twin-screw extrusion process. The structure of PEG-modified lignin was studied by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and gel permeation chromatographic (GPC) analysis. The effects of different contents of soda lignin and PEG-modified lignin on PLA composites were studied by tensile test, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA) and degradation analysis. The experimental results showed that the addition of PEG-modified lignin enhanced the heat resistance of PLA composite. PLA could be combined with up to 30 % PEG-modified lignin, with no significant reduction in tensile strength properties. Compared with PLA-L30, the tensile stress and elongation at break of PLA-PL30 were increased by 26.4 % and 78.9 %, respectively. This approach provided a new way to produce high-performance lignin based-PLA composites and had certain industrial application value.

Hyperbranched Polymer-Based Vaccines for Cancer Immunotherapy.

Recently, several immunotherapeutic strategies are extensively studied and entered clinical investigation, suggesting their potential to lead a new generation of cancer therapy. Particularly, a cancer vaccine that combines tumor-associated antigens and immune adjuvants with a nanocarrier holds huge promise for inducing specific antitumor immune responses. Hyperbranched polymers, such as dendrimers and branched polyethylenimine (PEI) possessing abundant positively charged amine groups and inherent proton sponge effect are ideal carriers of antigens. Much effort is devoted to design dendrimer/branched PEI-based cancer vaccines. Herein, the recent advances in the design of dendrimer/branched PEI-based cancer vaccines for immunotherapy are reviewed. The future perspectives with regard to the development of dendrimer/branched PEI-based cancer vaccines are also briefly discussed.

Redox-Responsive Dendrimer Nanogels Enable Ultrasound-Enhanced Chemoimmunotherapy of Pancreatic Cancer via Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress Amplification and Macrophage Polarization.

Developing a multifunctional nanoplatform to achieve efficient theranostics of tumors through multi-pronged strategies remains to be challenging. Here, the design of the intelligent redox-responsive generation 3 (G3) poly(amidoamine) dendrimer nanogels (NGs) loaded with gold nanoparticles (Au NPs) and chemotherapeutic drug toyocamycin (Au/Toy@G3 NGs) for ultrasound-enhanced cancer theranostics is showcased. The constructed hybrid NGs with a size of 193 nm possess good colloidal stability under physiological conditions, and can be dissociated to release Au NPs and Toy in the reductive glutathione-rich tumor microenvironment (TME). The released Toy can promote the apoptosis of cancer cells through endoplasmic reticulum stress amplification and cause immunogenic cell death to maturate dendritic cells. The loaded Au NPs can induce the conversion of tumor-associated macrophages from M2-type to antitumor M1-type to remodulate the immunosuppressive TME. Combined with antibody-mediated immune checkpoint blockade, effective chemoimmunotherapy of a pancreatic tumor mouse model can be realized, and the chemoimmunotherapy effect can be further ultrasound enhanced due to the sonoporation-improved tumor permeability of NGs. The developed Au/Toy@G3 NGs also enable Au-mediated computed tomography imaging of tumors. The constructed responsive dendrimeric NGs tackle tumors through a multi-pronged chemoimmunotherapy strategy targeting both cancer cells and immune cells, which hold a promising potential for clinical translations.

Multilayer films with nanocontainers: redox-controlled reversible encapsulation of guest molecules.

Stable multilayer films with cucurbit[8]uril have been fabricated on the basis of the alternating layer-by-layer assembly of a novel side-chain pseudopolyrotaxane and a photoreactive polyanion. The as-prepared multilayer films exhibit good properties as surface-imprinted multilayers, because cucurbit[8]uril molecules that are locked inside the multilayers can act as nanocontainers with specific binding to certain guest molecules, and the loading and release of the guest is redox-controllable and reversible.

Acetylcholinesterase responsive polymeric supra-amphiphiles for controlled self-assembly and disassembly.

We have fabricated enzyme responsive polymeric supra-amphiphiles by mixing a block copolymer of poly(ethylene glycol)-block-poly(acrylic acid) with myristoylcholine chloride in water. The polymeric supra-amphiphiles self-assemble into spherical aggregates with sizes varying from about 40 to 150 nm. Moreover, the spherical aggregates can be disassembled triggered by acetylcholinesterase, an enzyme which can cut off the ester linkage of myristoylcholine chloride. Nile red can be loaded into the spherical aggregates and released in several hours upon the treatment of acetylcholinesterase. The releasing rate is rather fast considering that it takes more than 150 h for Nile red to diffuse out of the spherical aggregates without addition of acetylcholinesterase. It is anticipated that the new enzyme responsive polymeric supra-amphiphile may be explored as a carrier for drug delivery.

Enzyme-responsive polymeric supra-amphiphiles formed by the complexation of chitosan and ATP.

Chitosan and adenosine-5'-triphosphate (ATP) are employed as building blocks to fabricate polymeric supra-amphiphiles based on electrostatic interactions, which can self-assemble to form spherical aggregates. The spherical aggregates inherit the phosphotase responsiveness of ATP. Compared to our previous work, this enzyme-responsive system can be more biocompatible and block polymers are not needed in preparation, which makes it possible to fabricate the chitosan-based enzyme-responsive assemblies in a large-scale, cheap way. Therefore, the application of the assemblies for nanocontainers and drug delivery is greatly anticipated.