Biodegradation of alkali lignin by a newly isolated Rhodococcus pyridinivorans CCZU-B16.

Based on the Prussian blue spectrophotometric method, one high-throughput screening strategy for screening lignin-degrading microorganisms was built on 24-well plate at room temperature. One high activity of alkali lignin-degrading strain Rhodococcus pyridinivorans CCZU-B16 was isolated from soil. After the optimization of biodegradation, 30.2% of alkali lignin (4 g/L) was degraded under the nitrogen-limited condition (30/1 of C/N ratio; g/g) at 30 °C for 72 h. It was found that syringyl (S) units and guaiacyl (G) in lignin decreased after biodegradation. Moreover, the accumulated lipid in cells had a fatty acid profile rich in C16 and C18 with four major constituent fatty acids including palmitic acid (C16:0; 22.4%), palmitoleic acid (C16:1; 21.1%), stearic acid (C18:0; 16.2%), and oleic acid (C18:1; 23.1%). In conclusion, Rhodococcus pyridinivorans CCZU-B16 showed high potential application in future.

Preparation of polyphosphazene hydrogels for enzyme immobilization.

We report on the synthesis and application of a new hydrogel based on a methacrylate substituted polyphosphazene. Through ring-opening polymerization and nucleophilic substitution, poly[bis(methacrylate)phosphazene] (PBMAP) was successfully synthesized from hexachlorocyclotriphosphazene. By adding PBMAP to methacrylic acid solution and then treating with UV light, we could obtain a cross-linked polyphosphazene network, which showed an ultra-high absorbency for distilled water. Lipase from Candida rugosa was used as the model lipase for entrapment immobilization in the hydrogel. The influence of methacrylic acid concentration on immobilization efficiency was studied. Results showed that enzyme loading reached a maximum of 24.02 mg/g with an activity retention of 67.25% when the methacrylic acid concentration was 20% (w/w).

Glycopolymer brushes for the affinity adsorption of RCA120: effects of thickness, grafting density, and epitope density.

The interactions between glycopolymer brushes and lectin are very important for the development of affinity membrane chromatography in protein separation. Here, we report the combination of surface-initiated atom transfer radical polymerization (SI-ATRP) and surface plasmon resonance (SPR) to investigate the relationship between the structure of glycopolymer brushes and the affinity adsorption of lectin. The glycopolymer brushes were fabricated from self-assembly of 11-mercapto-1-undecanol (MUD)/1-undecanethiol (UDT) mixture, immobilization of ATRP initiators, and then SI-ATRP of 2-lactobionamidoethyl methacrylate (LAMA). Brush thickness and grafting density were adjusted by controlling polymerization time and thiol ratio in MUD/UDT mixture, respectively. Sugar epitope density was also controlled through copolymerization of 2-hydroxylethyl methacrylate (HEMA) with LAMA. Ricinus communis agglutinin (RCA(120)), one kind of lectin that can bind galactose specifically, was chosen to study the effects of brush architectures on lectin adsorption. SPR results indicate not only the thickness but also the grafting density and the epitope density of glycopolymer brushes can achieve the best performance of sugar cluster effect in affinity adsorption of lectin. In addition, the mass transport effect is crucial in the adsorption process. We propose that it is important to keep the balance between the sugar cluster effect and the mass transport effect in the preparation of high-performance affinity membrane chromatography.

Preparation of coaxial-electrospun poly[bis(p-methylphenoxy)]phosphazene nanofiber membrane for enzyme immobilization.

A core/sheath nanofiber membrane with poly[bis(p-methylphenoxy)]phospha-zene (PMPPh) as the sheath and easily spinnable polyacrylonitrile (PAN) as the core was prepared via a coaxial electrospinning process. Field-emission scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy were used to characterize the morphology of the nanofiber membrane. It was found that the concentration of the PAN spinning solution and the ratio of the core/sheath solution flow rates played a decisive role in the coaxial electrospinning process. In addition, the stabilized core/sheath PMPPh nanofiber membrane was investigated as a support for enzyme immobilization because of its excellent biocompatibility, high surface/volume ratio, and large porosity. Lipase from Candida rugosa was immobilized on the nanofiber membrane by adsorption. The properties of the immobilized lipase on the polyphosphazene nanofiber membrane were studied and compared with those of a PAN nanofiber membrane. The results showed that the adsorption capacity (20.4 ± 2.7 mg/g) and activity retention (63.7%) of the immobilized lipase on the polyphosphazene nanofiber membrane were higher than those on the PAN membrane.

Case Report: Neuronal Intranuclear Inclusion Disease With Oromandibular Dystonia Onset.

Background: Neuronal intranuclear inclusion disease (NIID) is a rare neurodegenerative disease. Because of variable clinical manifestations, NIID was often misdiagnosed. According to published case reports, the common clinical manifestations of NIID include dementia, muscle weakness, autonomic impairment, sensory disturbance, rigidity, ataxia convulsions, etc. However, no cases of oromandibular dystonia were mentioned. Case Presentation: We describe a case of a 58-year-old woman presenting with mouth involuntary chewing initially. She started to show hand tremors, ataxia, and walking instability until 2 years later. Diffusion-weighted imaging showed high intensity signal along the corticomedullary junction. Fluid-attenuated inversion recovery imaging showed white matter hyperintensity. Electromyography (EMG) indicated peripheral nerve degeneration. Neuropsychological testing showed memory loss. Finally, skin biopsy and GGC repeat expansions in the NOTCH2NLC (Notch 2 N-terminal like C) gene confirmed the diagnosis of NIID. Conclusion: This case demonstrated that oromandibular dystonia could be the first symptom of NIID. This case report provides new characteristics of NIID and broadens its clinical spectrum.

First-line therapy for chronic graft-versus-host disease that includes low-dose methotrexate is associated with a high response rate.

We report the results of low-dose methotrexate (MTX) as first-line therapy mostly in combination with other immunosuppressive agents in patients with chronic graft-versus-host disease (cGVHD) after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HSCT). Between November 2001 and March 2008, 86 patients with cGVHD after allo-HSCT received low-dose MTX therapy until a complete or partial response (CR, PR) was achieved, or until treatment failure or intolerable side effects were found. The median time from HSCT to the start of MTX was 154 (range: 80-993) days. The median number of MTX administrations was 4 (range: 2-18). The overall response rate among all enrolled patients was 83% (71 of 86 patients). The response rate for GVHD involving various organs was 90% (45 of 50) in the skin, 75% (39 of 52) in the liver, 42% (5 of 12) in the mouth, 3 of 7 in the eye, and 2 of 2 in the gut. In addition, MTX treatment allowed for a significant reduction in the prednisone dosage (median 90%) from 20 (2.5-100) mg at the start of MTX administration to 5 (0-30) mg 1 month after MTX was last used. Multivariate analysis showed that the only significant factor related to higher CR rate was sole organ involvement (P = .007). Grade 3 toxicities occurred in only 3 patients presenting cytopenias or oral mucositis. From this analysis, MTX appears to be a well-tolerated, effective, and inexpensive agent when used as a first-line treatment in combination with other immunosuppressive agents for cGVHD, especially for skin or sole organ involvement without concomitant thrombocytopenia.

Top-Down Strategy of Implantable Biosensor Using Adaptable, Porous Hollow Fibrous Membrane.

Fabrication of an outer membrane is crucial for an implantable biosensor to enhance the long-term stability and accuracy of sensors. Herein, an adaptable, controllable, porous outer membrane for an implantable biosensor was fabricated using a "top-down" method, allowing maximum retention of enzyme activity and fine control over membrane microstructure. Polysulfone hollow fibrous membranes with different pore sizes and porosities were used as a base membrane. Chitosan (CH) and sodium alginate (SA) were self-assembled on the inner surface of PSfHM to construct a biocompatible and conductive interface between PSfHM and the electrode. In vitro and in vivo experiments were used to evaluate the performance of implantable glucose biosensors with PSfHM and CH/SA modified PSfHM (PSfHM-CH/SA). The glucose biosensor with PSfHM-CH/SA exhibited a more stable output current than bare sensors and a quick response time (<50 s). The glucose biosensor with PSfHM-CH/SA linear sensing range was between 0 and 22 mM ( R2 = 0.9905), and relative sensitivity remained at >87% within 7 days and >76% within 15 days. Furthermore, response currents recorded by implanted sensors closely followed the blood glucose trend from the tail vein blood during in vivo experiments.

Chitosan-modified poly(acrylonitrile-co-acrylic acid) nanofibrous membranes for the immobilization of concanavalin A.

Lectin affinity membranes have been receiving much attention for the separation and detection of various glycoconjugates. In this work, we present a simple and efficient method for the preparation of lectin affinity nanofibrous membranes. Chitosan-modified poly(acrylonitrile-co-acrylic acid) (PANCAA) nanofibrous membranes were first prepared by a coupling reaction between the primary amino groups of chitosan and the carboxyl groups of PANCAA electrospun membranes. Surface characterizations by attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR/ATR), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) confirm the chemical and morphological changes of the studied nanofibrous membranes. Fluorescence-labeled concanavalin A (FL-Con A) was then immobilized on these membranes via noncovalent binding. Analyses by fluorescence spectrophotometer (FS) and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) reveal that the immobilization of Con A onto the modified nanofibrous membranes has been successfully achieved on the basis of the electrostatic interaction and the specific recognition between Con A and chitosan. The results show that the amount of adsorbed FL-Con A increases dramatically with the increasing coupling degree of chitosan (CDC) on the nanofibrous membrane. Moreover, Con A immobilized on the chitosan-modified nanofibrous membranes (CMNMs) can remain relatively stable at pH 5.3. Therefore, it is believed that this work may provide a new kind of material for affinity application.

Covalent immobilization of lipase from Candida rugosa onto poly(acrylonitrile-co-2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) electrospun fibrous membranes for potential bioreactor application.

A simple way of fabricating enzymatic membrane reactor with high enzyme loading and activity retention from the conjugation between nanofibrous membrane and lipase was devised. Poly(acrylonitrile-co-2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) (PANCHEMA) was electrospun into fibrous membrane and used as support for enzyme immobilization. The hydroxyl groups on the fibrous membrane surface were activated with epichlorohydrin, cyanuric chloride or p-benzoquinone, respectively. Lipase from Candida rugosa was covalently immobilized on these fibrous membranes. The resulted bioactive fibrous membranes were examined in catalytic efficiency and activity for hydrolysis. The observed enzyme loading on the fibrous membrane with fiber diameter of 80-150 nm was up to 1.6% (wt/wt), which was as thrice as that on the fibrous membrane with fiber diameter of 800-1,000 nm. Activity retention for the immobilized lipase varied between 32.5% and 40.6% with the activation methods of hydroxyl groups. Stabilities of the immobilized lipase were obviously improved. In addition, continuous hydrolysis was carried out with an enzyme-immobilized fibrous membrane bioreactor and a steady hydrolysis conversion (3.6%) was obtained at a 0.23 mL/min flow rate under optimum condition.

Diffusion and structure of water in polymers containing N-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone.

Poly(N-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone) (PVP), a water-soluble polymer, is known for its excellent biocompatibility. It is generally recognized that the properties of polymers may be profoundly affected by the structure of water absorbed in them. In this study, Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) in attenuated total reflection (ATR) and transmission mode was performed to examine the diffusion and structure of water in PVP and its copolymers. The obtained spectra were analyzed using two-dimensional (2D) IR with the aid of density functional theory (DFT) calculations. The 2D IR of time-resolved FT-IR/ATR spectra shows that type II water between 3300 and 3500 cm(-1) occurs earlier during the water absorption process, which is also demonstrated by transmission FT-IR at the initial stage of water absorption. Conversely, type II water changes last when desorption takes place. Results from DFT calculations indicate that type II water might be monomeric or dimeric water molecules interacting with a carbonyl group in the pyrrolidone moiety. Furthermore, it is found that vibrations less than 3300 cm(-1) (type I water) arise from water molecules involved in a carbonyl group interacting with more than two water molecules. It is reasonable that the transmission FT-IR spectra of film with an extra low water amount hardly show vibration bands below 3300 cm(-1); however, this region is distinct in the FT-IR/ATR spectra of fully swollen film. In addition, vibration bands between 3800 and 3500 cm(-1) (type III water) are assigned to free water or water with relatively weak hydrogen bonding, as supported by the transmission FT-IR spectra of polyacrylonitrile (PAN) and the calculation results. Therefore, the diffusion process and the structures of water in PVP and its copolymers can be successfully accessed on the basis of the 2D IR analysis and DFT calculations.

Cytocompatibility of poly(acrylonitrile-co-N-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone) membranes with human endothelial cells and macrophages.

Polyacrylonitrile modified with N-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone (NVP) shows good hemocompatibility. This work, which aims to evaluate the cytocompatibility of membranes fabricated from poly(acrylonitrile-co-N-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone) (PANCNVP), studied the adhesion of macrophages and endothelial cell (EC) cultures. It was found that PANCNVP membranes with higher NVP content decreased the adhesion of both macrophages and ECs. Compared with polyacrylonitrile and tissue culture polystyrene control, however, these PANCNVP membranes promoted the proliferation of ECs. Furthermore, the viability of ECs cultured on the PANCNVP membrane surfaces was also relatively competitive. Both static and dynamic water contact angle measurements were conducted to explain the nature of cell adhesion to the PANCNVP membranes. On the basis of these results and the phenomena of water swelling and water states reported previously, it was presumed that the coexistence of large amounts of bound water and free water induced by NVP moieties are responsible for the lower adhesion and better function of cells adhering to the PANCNVP membranes.

Anionic glycosylated polysulfone membranes for the affinity adsorption of low-density lipoprotein via click reactions.

An anionic glycosylated polysulfone (PSf) membrane was prepared as a high-affinity adsorbent for low-density lipoprotein (LDL). The UV-induced grafting of acrylic acid to the membrane was followed by amidation and a 'thiol-yne' click reaction to achieve glycosylation and sulfonation. Membrane modification was confirmed by attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. These tests revealed that the chemical compositions of the membranes' surfaces were easily regulated by controlling the 'thiol-yne' click reaction through the feed ratio of 2,3,4,6-tetra-O-acetyl-1-thio-ß-d-glucopyranose and sodium 3-mercapto-1-propanesulfonate. LDL adsorption and desorption rates were estimated using an enzyme-linked-immunosorbent assay, which revealed that the obtained anionic glycosylated PSf membrane had a higher affinity for LDL than either glycosylated or sulfonated membranes alone. The combination of glycosyl and sulfonyl groups enhanced the membranes' affinities for LDL. The modified PSf membrane had an excellent biocompatibility and adsorbed a large amount of LDL, making it a promising material for LDL apheresis. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) adsorbents normally contain negative charged ligand to induce electrostatic interaction with the positively charged regions of LDL. Furthermore, saccharide is another common component which share in most of the LDL-adsorbents and the LDL-receptor (LDLR). Such structural similarity impels us to investigate the synergistic effect of anionic and saccharide on LDL recognition. For this purpose, an anionic glycosylated membrane of which surface composition can be controlled by click reaction with mutable glycosyl/sulfonyl ratios was prepared. The obtained membrane showed better LDL adsorption/desorption property and the adsorption amount for LDL at an optimum feed ratio. This finding highlights the role of synergistic effect of anionic and saccharide, which offer a new strategy for designing LDL adsorbent with high efficiency.

Improvement of the surface biocompatibility of silicone intraocular lens by the plasma-induced tethering of phospholipid moieties.

To improve the surface biocompatibility of the silicone intraocular lens (IOL), 2-methacryloyloxyethyl phosphorylcholine (MPC) was tethered onto the IOL through air plasma treatment. Chemical changes on the IOL surface were characterized by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) to confirm the covalent binding of MPC. Morphologies of the IOL surfaces were observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to optimize the plasma treatment process. The hydrophilicity and biocompatibility of the control and modified IOLs were compared by the measurements of water contact angle, platelet adhesion, macrophage cell culture, and lens epithelial cell (LEC) attachment. It was found that, after the tethering of MPC, the hydrophilicity of the IOL can be improved significantly and permanently, and the platelet, macrophage, and LEC adhesion on the IOL surface are obviously suppressed, which indicated the enhancement of surface biocompatibility.

Novel acrylonitrile-based copolymers containing phospholipid moieties: synthesis and characterization.

Novel acrylonitrile-based copolymers containing phospholipid moieties were synthesized by a three-step process, which included the copolymerization of acrylonitrile and 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA) in water and the reaction of the resulting poly[acrylonitrile-co-(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate)]s (PANCHEMA) with 2-chloro-2-oxo-1,3,2-dioxaphospholane (COP) followed by the ring-opening reaction of COP with trimethylamine. The chemical structure of PANCHEMA and the phospholipid-containing acrylonitrile-based copolymers (PLCANCP) was analyzed with FT-IR spectroscopy, (1)H and (31)P NMR, and XPS. Surface properties of the studied copolymers were evaluated by the pure water contact angle, protein adsorption and platelets adhesion measurements. The water contact angle measured by sessile drop method decreased for the polymers in the following sequence: PAN, PANCHEMA, and PLCANCP. The adsorption amount of bovine serum albumin and the adhesive number of platelet followed the same decline sequence. These results demonstrate that the biocompatibility of the acrylonitrile-based copolymer membranes could be improved efficiently by the introduction of phospholipid moieties.

Hemocompatibility of poly(acrylonitrile-co-N-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone)s: swelling behavior and water states.

Hemocompatibility is an essential aspect of blood contacting polymers. Knowledge of the relationship between polymer structure and hemocompatibility is important in designing such polymers. In this work, the effect of swelling behavior and states of water on the hemocompatibility of poly(acrylonitrile-co-N-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone) (PANCNVP) films was studied. Platelet adhesion and plasma recalcification time tests were used to evaluate the hemocompatibility of the films. Considering the importance of surface properties on the hemocompatibility of polymers, static water contact angles were measured by both sessile drop and captive bubble methods. It was found that, on the film surface of PANCNVP with a higher NVP content, adhered platelets were remarkably suppressed and the recalcification time was longer. The total water content adsorbed on the PANCNVP film was determined through swelling experiments performed at temperatures of interest. Differential scanning calorimetry and thermogravimetric analysis were used to probe the states of water in the films. Based on the results from these experiments, it was hypothesized that the better hemocompatibility of PANCNVP films with higher NVP contents was due to their higher free water content, because water molecule exchange at the polymer/liquid interface, facilitated by a high free water content, is unfavorable for the formation of surface bound water, which causes poor hemocompatibility. [diagram in text].

[Methotrexate for treatment of graft versus host disease after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation].

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the efficacy and safety of low-dose methotrexate in patients with graft versus host disease (GVHD) after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (Allo-HSCT). METHODS: Thirty-one patients with minor or moderate grade acute GVHD (aGVHD), chronic GVHD (cGVHD) or GVHD post donor lymphocyte infusion (post-DLI GVHD) after Allo-HSCT received intravenously administrated methotrexate at a dose of 5 or 10mg every 5 to 7 days until achieving complete or partial responses, treatment failure or intolerable side effects. RESULTS: The overall response rate was 93.8% (15/16 patients) in patients with aGVHD, 75% (12/16 patients) in patients with cGVHD and 100% (2/2 in patients) with post-DLI GVHD. The response rate for GVHD involving organs was 100% in skin, 60% in gut, 71% in liver, 75% in mouth and 100% in eyes. Side effects were minor. During the therapy, the other immunosuppressive agents were reduced. CONCLUSION: Short-term low-dose methotrexate is a tolerable and effective regimen for patients with minor or moderate grade aGVHD, cGVHD or post-DLI GVHD after Allo-HSCT.

Promising MS2 mediated virus-like particle vaccine against foot-and-mouth disease.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) has caused severe economic losses to millions of farmers worldwide. In this work, the coding genes of 141-160 epitope peptide (EP141-160) of VP1 were inserted into the coat protein (CP) genes of MS2 in prokaryotic expression vector, and the recombinant protein self-assembled into virus-like particles (VLP). Results showed that the CP-EP141-160 VLP had a strong immunoreaction with the FMD virus (FMDV) antigen in vitro, and also had an effective immune response in mice. Further virus challenge tests were carried out on guinea pigs and swine, high-titer neutralizing antibodies were produced and the CP-EP141-160 VLP vaccine could protect most of the animals against FMDV.

Polypropylene non-woven meshes with conformal glycosylated layer for lectin affinity adsorption: the effect of side chain length.

The unique characteristics of polypropylene non-woven meshes (PPNWMs), like random network of overlapped fibers, multiple connected pores and overall high porosity, make them high potentials for use as separation or adsorption media. Meanwhile, carbohydrates can specifically recognize certain lectin through multivalent interactions. Therefore glycosylated PPNWMs, combing the merits of both, can be regarded as superior affinity membranes for lectin adsorption and purification. Here, we describe a versatile strategy for the glycosylation of PPNWMs. Two hydrophilic polymers with different side chain length, poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) (PHEMA) and poly(oligo(ethylene glycol) methacrylate) (POEGMA), were first conformally tethered on the polypropylene fiber surface by a modified plasma pretreatment and benzophenone (BP) entrapment UV irradiation process. Then glucose ligands were bound through the reaction between the hydroxyl group and acetyl glucose. Chemical changes of the PPNWMs surface were monitored by FT-IR/ATR. SEM pictures show that conformal glucose ligands can be achieved through the modified process. After deprotection, the glycosylated PPNWMs became superhydrophilic and had high specific recognition capability toward Concanavalin A (Con A). Static Con A adsorption experiments were further performed and the results indicate that fast adsorption kinetics and high binding capacity can be accomplished at the same time. We also found that increasing the side chain length of polymer brushes had positive effect on protein binding capacity due to improved chain mobility. Model studies suggest a multilayer adsorption behavior of Con A.

Immobilization of sodium alginate sulfates on polysulfone ultrafiltration membranes for selective adsorption of low-density lipoprotein.

A novel method for the immobilization of sodium alginate sulfates (SAS) on polysulfone (PSu) ultrafiltration membranes to achieve selective adsorption of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) was developed, which involved the photoinduced graft polymerization of acrylamide on the membrane and the Hofmann rearrangement reaction of grafted acrylamide followed by chemical binding of SAS with glutaraldehyde. The surface modification processes were confirmed by attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy characterization. Zeta potential and water contact angle measurements were performed to investigate the surface charge and wettability of the membranes. An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was used to measure the binding of LDL on plain and modified PSu membranes. It was found that the PSu membrane immobilized with sodium alginate sulfates (PSu-SAS) greatly enhanced the selective adsorption of LDL from protein solutions and the absorbed LDL could be easily eluted with sodium chloride solution, indicating a specific and reversible binding of LDL to SAS, mainly driven by electrostatic forces. Furthermore, the PSu-SAS membrane showed good blood compatibility as examined by platelet adhesion. The results suggest that the PSu-SAS membranes are promising for application in simultaneous hemodialysis and LDL apheresis therapy.

Silica-decorated polypropylene microfiltration membranes with a mussel-inspired intermediate layer for oil-in-water emulsion separation.

Silica-decorated polypropylene microfiltration membranes were fabricated via a facile biomimetic silicification process on the polydopamine/polyethylenimine-modified surfaces. The membranes exhibit superhydrophilicity and underwater superoleophobicity derived from the inherent hydrophilicity and the well-defined micronanocomposite structures of the silica-decorated surfaces. They can be applied in varieties of oil-in-water emulsions separation with high permeate flux (above 1200 L/m(2)h under 0.04 MPa) and oil rejection (above 99%). The membranes also have relatively high oil breakthrough pressure reaching 0.16 MPa due to the microporous structure, showing great potential for practical applications. Furthermore, such mussel-inspired intermediate layer provides us a convenient and powerful tool to fabricate organic-inorganic hybrid membranes for advanced applications.