Zwitterionic Biomaterials.

The term "zwitterionic polymers" refers to polymers that bear a pair of oppositely charged groups in their repeating units. When these oppositely charged groups are equally distributed at the molecular level, the molecules exhibit an overall neutral charge with a strong hydration effect via ionic solvation. The strong hydration effect constitutes the foundation of a series of exceptional properties of zwitterionic materials, including resistance to protein adsorption, lubrication at interfaces, promotion of protein stabilities, antifreezing in solutions, etc. As a result, zwitterionic materials have drawn great attention in biomedical and engineering applications in recent years. In this review, we give a comprehensive and panoramic overview of zwitterionic materials, covering the fundamentals of hydration and nonfouling behaviors, different types of zwitterionic surfaces and polymers, and their biomedical applications.

Adding Flying Wings: Butterfly-Shaped NIR-II AIEgens with Multiple Molecular Rotors for Photothermal Combating of Bacterial Biofilms.

The ever-increasing threats of multidrug-resistant bacteria and their biofilm-associated infections have bred a desperate demand for alternative remedies to combat them. Near-infrared (NIR)-absorbing photothermal agent (PTAs)-mediated photothermal therapy (PTT) is particularly attractive for biofilm ablation thanks to its superiorities of noninvasive intervention, satisfactory antibacterial efficiency, and less likelihood to develop resistance. Herein, three butterfly-shaped aggregation-induced emission luminogens (AIEgens) with balanced nonradiative decay (for conducting PTT) and radiative decay (for supplying fluorescence in the NIR-II optical window) are rationally designed for imaging-assisted photothermal obliteration of bacterial biofilms. After being encapsulated into cationic liposomes, AIEgens-fabricated nanoparticles can eradicate a wide spectrum of biofilms formed by Gram-positive bacteria (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus faecalis) and Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa) upon an 808 nm laser irradiation. In vivo experiments firmly demonstrate that the NIR-II AIE liposomes with excellent biocompatibility perform well in both the P. aeruginosa biofilm-induced keratitis mouse model and the MSRA biofilm-induced skin infection mouse model.

Engineering the Outer Membrane Could Facilitate Better Bacterial Performance and Effectively Enhance Poly-3-Hydroxybutyrate Accumulation.

Poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) is an environmentally friendly polymer and can be produced in Escherichia coli cells after overexpression of the heterologous gene cluster phaCAB. The biosynthesis of the outer membrane (OM) consumes many nutrients and influences cell morphology. Here, we engineered the OM by disrupting all gene clusters relevant to the polysaccharide portion of lipopolysaccharide (LPS), colanic acid (CA), flagella, and/or fimbria in E. coli W3110. All these disruptions benefited PHB production. Especially, disrupting all these OM components increased the PHB content to 83.0 wt% (PHB content percentage of dry cell weight), while the wild-type control produced only 1.5 wt% PHB. The increase was mainly due to the LPS truncation to Kdo2 (3-deoxy-d-manno-octulosonic acid)-lipid A, which resulted in 82.0 wt% PHB with a 25-fold larger cell volume, and disrupting CA resulted in 57.8 wt% PHB. In addition, disrupting LPS facilitated advantageous fermentation features, including 69.1% less acetate, a 550% higher percentage of autoaggregated cells among the total culture cells, 69.1% less biofilm, and a higher broken cell ratio. Further detailed mechanism investigations showed that disrupting LPS caused global changes in envelope and cellular metabolism: (i) a sharp decrease in flagella, fimbria, and secretions; (ii) more elastic cells; (iii) much greater carbon flux toward acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA) and supply of cofactors, including NADP, NAD, and ATP; and (iv) a decrease in by-product acids but increase in γ-aminobutyric acid by activating σE factor. Disrupting CA, flagella, and fimbria also improved the levels of acetyl-CoA and cofactors. The results indicate that engineering the OM is an effective strategy to enhance PHB production and highlight the applicability of OM engineering to increase microbial cell factory performance. IMPORTANCE Understanding the detailed influence of the OM on the cell envelope and cellular metabolism is important for optimizing the E. coli cell factory and many other microorganisms. This study revealed the applicability of remodeling the OM to enhance PHB accumulation as representative inclusion bodies. The results generated in this study give essential information for producing other inclusion bodies or chemicals which need more acetyl-CoA and cofactors but less by-product acids. This study is promising to provide new ideas for the improvement of microbial cell factories.

Synergistic Chemotherapy and Photodynamic Therapy of Endophthalmitis Mediated by Zeolitic Imidazolate Framework-Based Drug Delivery Systems.

Endophthalmitis, derived from the infections of pathogens, is a common complication during the use of ophthalmology-related biomaterials and after ophthalmic surgery. Herein, aiming at efficient photodynamic therapy (PDT) of bacterial infections and biofilm eradication of endophthalmitis, a pH-responsive zeolitic imidazolate framework-8-polyacrylic acid (ZIF-8-PAA) material is constructed for bacterial infection-targeted delivery of ammonium methylbenzene blue (MB), a broad-spectrum photosensitizer antibacterial agent. Polyacrylic acid (PAA) is incorporated into the system to achieve higher pH responsiveness and better drug loading capacity. MB-loaded ZIF-8-PAA nanoparticles are modified with AgNO3 /dopamine for in situ reduction of AgNO3 to silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), followed by a secondary modification with vancomycin/NH2 -polyethylene glycol (Van/NH2 -PEG), leading to the formation of a composite nanomaterial, ZIF-8-PAA-MB@AgNPs@Van-PEG. Dynamic light scattering, transmission electron microscopy, and UV-vis spectral analysis are used to explore the nanoparticles synthesis, drug loading and release, and related material properties. In terms of biological performance, in vitro antibacterial studies against three kinds of bacteria, i.e., Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and methicillin-resistant S. aureus, suggest an obvious superiority of PDT/AgNPs to any single strategy. Both in vitro retinal pigment epithelium cellular biocompatibility experiments and in vivo mice endophthalmitis models verify the biocompatibility and antibacterial function of the composite nanomaterials.

Mixed-Charged Zwitterionic Polymeric Micelles for Tumor Acidic Environment Responsive Intracellular Drug Delivery.

A new class of mixed-charged zwitterionic copolymer poly(aminoethyl methacrylate)- co-poly(methacrylic acid)- co-poly( n-butyl methacrylate) (CPMA) was prepared as drug nanocarrier for efficient intracellular delivery of Doxorubicin (DOX). The mixed-charged CPMA copolymer could readily assemble to micelles in physiological environment (pH 7.4) with the size of 42.6 nm and zeta potential of -26 mV, which would lead to a prolonged circulation time and enhanced tumor penetration. However, the micelles formed large aggregates due to the protonation of carboxyl groups at extracellular tumor pH (pH 6.5). Meanwhile, the zeta potential of CPMA micelles increased from -26 mV to -6 mV when the solution pH was changed from pH 7.4 to pH 6.5. The increase of size and zeta potential at extracellular tumor pH could benefit the retention of micelles in tumor matrix and uptake by cancer cells. The DOX-loaded mixed-charged CPMA micelles could induce a higher internalization at pH 6.5 than 7.4 at varied time periods. Moreover, cytotoxicity assay demonstrated that the blank micelles showed excellent biocompatibility, but were highly cytotoxic toward KB cells after loading with DOX. Thus, the mixed-charged zwitterionic polymeric micelles might be a promising carrier for tumor acidic environment responsive drug delivery.

Zwitterionic Reduction-Activated Supramolecular Prodrug Nanocarriers for Photodynamic Ablation of Cancer Cells.

An adamantane-containing zwitterionic copolymer poly(2-(methacryloyloxy)ethyl phosphorylcholine)- co-poly(2-(methacryloyloxy)ethyl adamantane-1-carboxylate) (poly(MPC- co-MAda)) was prepared by reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization. The hydrophobic photosensitizer chlorin e6 (Ce6) was conjugated to ß-cyclodextrin (ß-CD) by glutathione (GSH)-sensitive disulfide bonds. The Ce6 conjugated supramolecular prodrug nanocarriers were fabricated due to the host-guest interaction between adamantane and ß-CD, which was confirmed by dynamic light scattering (DLS) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The Ce6 conjugated prodrug nanocarriers showed reduction-responsive release of Ce6, which could result in the activation of Ce6. The generation of cytotoxic reactive oxygen species (ROS) was significantly enhanced due to the activation of Ce6. In additiona, the Ce6 conjugated prodrug nanocarriers could effectively inhibit the proliferation of cancer cells upon light irradiation.

Bioinspired Polydopamine/Polyzwitterion Coatings for Underwater Anti-Oil and -Freezing Surfaces.

Zwitterionic polymers are continually suggested as promising alternatives to tune the surface/interface properties of materials in many fields because of their unique molecular structures. Tremendous efforts have been devoted to immobilizing zwitterionic polymers (polyzwitterions, PZIs) on the material surfaces. However, these efforts usually suffer from cumbersome and time-consuming procedures. Herein we report a one-step strategy to facilely achieve the bioinspired polydopamine/polyzwitterion (PDA/PZI) coatings on various substrates. It requires only 30 min to form PDA/PZI coatings by mixing oxidant, dopamine, and zwitterionic monomers, including carboxybetaine methacrylate (CBMA), sulfobetaine methacrylate (SBMA), and 2-methacryloxyethyl phosphorylcholine (MPC). These bioinspired coatings display multifunctional properties such as underwater antioil-adhesion and antifreezing thanks to their high hydrophilicity and underwater superoleophobicity. The coatings even show the antiadhesion property for crude oil with high viscosity. Therefore, the PDA/PZI-coated meshes are efficient for separating both light oil and crude oil from oil/water mixtures. All these results demonstrate that the one-step strategy is a facile approach to design and exploit the bioinspired PDA/PZI coatings for diverse applications.

Let There be Light: Polymeric Micelles with Upper Critical Solution Temperature as Light-Triggered Heat Nanogenerators for Combating Drug-Resistant Cancer.

Complete drug release and efficient drug retention are two critical factors in reversing drug resistance in cancer therapy. In this regard, polymeric micelles with an upper critical solution temperature (UCST) are designed as a new exploration to reverse drug resistance. The amphiphilic UCST-type block copolymers are used to encapsulate photothermal agent IR780 and doxorubicin (DOX) simultaneously. The integrated UCST-type drug nanocarriers show light-triggered multiple synergistic effects to reverse drug resistance and are expected to kill three birds with one stone: First, owing to the photothermal effect of IR780, the nanocarriers will be dissociated upon exposure to laser irradiation, leading to complete drug release. Second, the photothermal effect-induced hyperthermia is expected to avoid the efflux of DOX and realize efficient drug retention. Last but not least, photothermal ablation of cancer cells can be achieved after laser irradiation. Therefore, the UCST-type drug nanocarriers provide a new strategy in reversing drug resistance in cancer therapy.

Glutathione Activatable Photosensitizer-Conjugated Pseudopolyrotaxane Nanocarriers for Photodynamic Theranostics.

Photodynamic theranostics has recently been extensively explored as a promising approach for precise localization and therapy. Herein, glutathione (GSH) activatable photosensitizer (PS)-conjugated pseudopolyrotaxane nanocarriers (α-CD-ss-Ce6 NPs) are reported for enhanced photodynamic theranostics by taking advantage of the noncovalent interactions between α-cyclodextrin (α-CD) and poly(ethylene glycol). The designed α-CD-ss-Ce6 NPs are nonactivated and stable during circulation but exhibited strong photodynamic theranostics through GSH activating after arriving at tumor site. More importantly, compared to free chlorin e6 (Ce6), such kind of pseudopolyrotaxane nanocarrier can dramatically enhance Ce6 accumulation in tumor and prolong its tumor retention time, demonstrating excellent therapeutic effects after light irradiation. Overall, the designed GSH activatable PS-conjugated pseudopolyrotaxane nanocarrier possessing high-performance photodynamic therapeutic efficacy together with reduced side effects offers a promising alternative for photodynamic theranostics.

pH- and NIR Light-Responsive Polymeric Prodrug Micelles for Hyperthermia-Assisted Site-Specific Chemotherapy to Reverse Drug Resistance in Cancer Treatment.

Despite the exciting advances in cancer chemotherapy over past decades, drug resistance in cancer treatment remains one of the primary reasons for therapeutic failure. IR-780 loaded pH-responsive polymeric prodrug micelles with near infrared (NIR) photothermal effect are developed to circumvent the drug resistance in cancer treatment. The polymeric prodrug micelles are stable in physiological environment, while exhibit fast doxorubicin (DOX) release in acidic condition and significant temperature elevation under NIR laser irradiation. Phosphorylcholine-based biomimetic micellar shell and acid-sensitive drug conjugation endow them with prolonged circulation time and reduced premature drug release during circulation to conduct tumor site-specific chemotherapy. The polymeric prodrug micelles combined with NIR laser irradiation could significantly enhance intracellular DOX accumulation and synergistically induce the cell apoptosis in DOX-resistant MCF-7/ADR cells. Meanwhile, the tumor site-specific chemotherapy combined with hyperthermia effect induces significant inhibition of MCF-7/ADR tumor growth in tumor-bearing mice. These results demonstrate that the well-designed IR-780 loaded polymeric prodrug micelles for hyperthermia-assisted site-specific chemotherapy present an effective approach to reverse drug resistance.

Effect of Polyelectrolyte Film Stiffness on Endothelial Cells During Endothelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition.

Endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EndMT), during which endothelial cells (ECs) transdifferentiate into mesenchymal phenotype, plays a key role in the development of vascular implant complications such as endothelium dysfunction and in-stent restenosis. Substrate stiffness has been confirmed as a key factor to influence EC behaviors; however, so far, the relationship between substrate stiffness and EndMT has been rarely studied. Here, ECs were cultured on the (poly(L-lysine)/hyaluronate acid) (PLL/HA) multilayer films with controlled stiffness for 2 weeks, and their EndMT behaviors were studied. We demonstrated that ECs lost their markers (vWf and CD31) in a stiffness-dependent manner even without supplement of growth factors, and the softer film favored the maintaining of EC phenotype. Further, induced by transforming growth factor ß1 (TGF-ß1), ECs underwent EndMT, as characterized by losing their typical cobblestone morphology and markers and gaining smooth muscle cell markers (α-smooth muscle actin and calponin). Interestingly, stronger EndMT was observed when ECs were cultured on the stiffer film. Collectively, our findings suggest that substrate stiffness has significant effects on EndMT, and a softer substrate is beneficial to ECs by keeping their phenotype and inhibiting EndMT, which presents a new strategy for surface design of vascular implant materials.

Electrochemical sensor for determination of tulathromycin built with molecularly imprinted polymer film.

A novel tulathromycin (TLTMC) electrochemical sensor based on molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) membranes was constructed. p-Aminothiophenol (p-ATP) and TLTMC were assembled on the surface of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) modified on the gold electrode (GE) by the formation of Au-S bonds and hydrogen-bonding interactions. Besides, polymer membranes were formed by electropolymerization in a polymer solution containing p-ATP, tetrachloroaurate(III) acid (HAuCl4), tetrabutylammonium perchlorate (TBAP), and a template molecule TLTMC. A novel molecular imprinted sensor (MIS) in this experiment was achieved after the removal of TLTMC. Cyclic voltammetry (CV) and differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) measurements were used to illustrate the process of electropolymerization and its optimal conditions. The electrode with MIP obtained the linear of response range, which was between 3.0 × 10(-12) mol L(-1) and 7.0 × 10(-9) mol L(-1), and the limit of detection was 1.0 × 10(-12) mol L(-1). All the obtained results indicate that the MIS tends to be an effective electrochemical technique for the determination of TLTMC in real-time and in a complicated matrix.

Surface tailoring of nanoparticles via mixed-charge monolayers and their biomedical applications.

The recent convergence of nanomaterials and medicine has provided an expanding horizon for people to achieve encouraging advances in many biomedical applications such as cancer diagnosis and therapy. However, to realize desirable functions in the rather complex biological systems, a suitable surface coating is greatly in need for nanoparticles (NPs), regardless of the species. In this review, a recently developed surface modification strategy is highlighted--mixed-charge monolayers--with an emphasis on the nanointerfaces of inorganic NPs. Two typical mixed-charge gold NPs (AuNPs) prepared from surface modifications with different combinations of oppositely charged alkanethiols are shown as detailed examples to discuss how the mixed-charge monolayer can help NPs meet the criteria for in vitro and in vivo biomedical applications, including those critical issues like colloidal stability, nonfouling properties, and smart responses (pH-sensitivity) for tumor targeting.

Light and pH dual-degradable triblock copolymer micelles for controlled intracellular drug release.

A novel amphiphilic ABA-type triblock copolymer poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(ethanedithiol-alt-nitrobenzyl)-b-poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG-b-PEDNB-b-PEG) is successfully prepared by sequential thiol-acrylate Michael addition polymerization in one pot. PEG-b-PEDNB-b-PEG is designed to have light-cleavable o-nitrobenzyl linkages and acid-labile ß-thiopropionate linkages positioned repeatedly in the main chain of the hydrophobic block. The light and pH dual degradation of PEG-b-PEDNB-b-PEG is traced by gel permeation chromatography (GPC). Such triblock copolymer can self-assemble into micelles, which can be used to encapsulate anticancer drug doxorubicin (DOX). Because of the different degradation chemistry of o-nitrobenzyl linkages and ß-thiopropionate linkages, DOX can be released from the micelles by two different manners, i.e., light-induced rapid burst release and pH-induced slow sustained release. Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) results indicated that DOX-loaded micelles exhibited faster drug release in A549 cells after UV irradiation. Furthermore, 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) results show that the DOX-loaded micelles under UV light degradation exhibit better anticancer activity against A549 cells than that of the nonirradiated ones.

Facile fabrication of robust superhydrophobic multilayered film based on bioinspired poly(dopamine)-modified carbon nanotubes.

Thin organic films containing carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have received increasing attention in many fields. In this study, a robust thin superhydrophobic film has been created by using layer-by-layer assembly of the carbon nanotubes wrapped by poly(dopamine) (CNT@PDA) and poly(ethyleneimine) (PEI). UV-vis spectroscopy, ellipsometry, and quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation (QCM-D) measurements confirmed that the sequential deposition of PEI and CNT@PDA resulted in a linear growth of the (PEI-CNT@PDA) film. This thin film contained as much as 77 wt% CNTs. Moreover, a very stable and flexible free-standing (PEI-CNT@PDA) film could be obtained by employing cellulose acetate (CA) as a sacrificial layer. The film could even withstand ultrasonication in saturated SDS aqueous solution for 30 min. SEM observations indicated that the ultrathin film consisted of nanoscale interpenetrating networks of entangled CNTs and exhibited a very rough surface morphology. The (PEI-CNT@PDA) film turned superhydrophobic after being coated with a low-surface-energy compound. The superhydrophobic films showed excellent resistance against the adhesion of both platelets and Escherichia coli (E. coli). The (PEI-CNT@PDA) films and the proposed methodology may find applications in the area of medical devices to reduce device-associated thrombosis and infection.

Natural products applied in acute kidney injury treatment: polymer matters.

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a global health threat due to its high morbidity and mortality. There is still a lack of effective therapeutic methods to deal with AKI clinically. Natural products with outstanding accessibility and bioactivity are potential candidates for AKI treatment. Natural product-based prodrugs or nano-structures with improved properties are frequently fabricated for maximizing bioavailability and decreasing side effects, in which natural polymers are selected as carriers, or natural drugs are loaded as cargos on designed polymers. In this review, the etiologies of AKI are briefly presented, and emerging natural products delivered rationally for AKI therapy, as either carriers or cargos, are both introduced. Moreover, the challenges of the future development of nature-based nanodrugs or prodrugs for AKI have also been discussed.

Materials Strategies to Overcome the Foreign Body Response.

The foreign body response (FBR) is an immune-mediated reaction that can occur with most biomaterials and biomedical devices. The FBR initiates a deterioration in the performance of implantable devices, representing a longstanding challenge that consistently hampers their optimal utilization. Over the last decade, significant strides are achieved based on either hydrogel design or surface modifications to mitigate the FBR. This review delves into recent material strategies aimed at mitigating the FBR. Further, the authors look forward to future novel anti-FBR materials from the perspective of clinical translation needs. Such prospective materials hold the potential to attenuate local immune responses, thereby significantly enhancing the overall performance of implantable devices.

Fibrous capsule-resistant, controllably degradable and functionalizable zwitterion-albumin hybrid hydrogels.

Foreign body response (FBR) represents an immune-mediated cascade reaction capable of inducing the rejection of foreign implants, thereby compromising their in vivo performance. Pure zwitterionic hydrogels have demonstrated the ability to resist long-term FBR, owing to their outstanding antifouling capabilities. However, achieving such a robust anti-FBR effect necessitates stringent requirements concerning the purity of zwitterionic materials, which constrains their broader functional applications. Herein, we present a biocompatible, controllably degradable, and functionalizable zwitterion-albumin hybrid hydrogel. The zwitterionic hydrogel crosslinked with serum albumin exhibits controllable degradation and excels in preventing the adsorption of various proteins and adhesion of cells and bacteria. Moreover, the hydrogel significantly alleviates the host's FBR compared with PEG hydrogels and particularly outperforms PEG-based cross-linker crosslinked zwitterionic hydrogels in reducing collagen encapsulation when subcutaneously implanted into mice. The zwitterion-albumin hybrid hydrogel shows potential as a functionalizable anti-FBR material in the context of implantable materials and biomedical devices.

Robust, Sprayable, and Multifunctional Hydrogel Coating through a Polycation Reinforced (PCR) Surface Bridging Strategy.

The sprayable hydrogel coatings that can establish robust adhesion onto diverse materials and devices hold enormous potential; however, a significant challenge persists due to monomer hydration, which impedes even coverage during spraying and induces inadequate adhesion post-gelation. Herein, a polycation-reinforced (PCR) surface bridging strategy is presented to achieve tough and sprayable hydrogel coatings onto diverse materials. The polycations offer superior wettability and instant electrostatic interactions with plasma-treated substrates, facilitating an effective spraying application. This PCR-based hydrogel coatings demonstrate tough adhesion performance to inert PTFE and silicone, including remarkable shear strength (161 ± 49 kPa for PTFE), interfacial toughness (198 ± 27 J m-2 for PTFE), and notable tolerance to cyclic tension (10 000 cycles, 200% strain, silicone). Meanwhile, this method can be applied to various hydrogel formulations, offering diverse functionalities, including underwater adhesion, lubrication, and drug delivery. Furthermore, the PCR concept enables the conformal construction of durable hydrogel coatings onto sophisticated medical devices like cardiovascular stents. Given its simplicity and adaptability, this approach paves an avenue for incorporating hydrogels onto solid surfaces and potentially promotes untapped applications.

Comparison study of surface-initiated hydrogel coatings with distinct side-chains for improving biocompatibility of polymeric heart valves.

Polymeric heart valves (PHVs) present a promising alternative for treating valvular heart diseases with satisfactory hydrodynamics and durability against structural degeneration. However, the cascaded coagulation, inflammatory responses, and calcification in the dynamic blood environment pose significant challenges to the surface design of current PHVs. In this study, we employed a surface-initiated polymerization method to modify polystyrene-block-isobutylene-block-styrene (SIBS) by creating three hydrogel coatings: poly(2-methacryloyloxy ethyl phosphorylcholine) (pMPC), poly(2-acrylamido-2-methylpropanesulfonic acid) (pAMPS), and poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) (pHEMA). These hydrogel coatings dramatically promoted SIBS's hydrophilicity and blood compatibility at the initial state. Notably, the pMPC and pAMPS coatings maintained a considerable platelet resistance performance after 12 h of sonication and 10 000 cycles of stretching and bending. However, the sonication process induced visible damage to the pHEMA coating and attenuated the anti-coagulation property. Furthermore, the in vivo subcutaneous implantation studies demonstrated that the amphiphilic pMPC coating showed superior anti-inflammatory and anti-calcification properties. Considering the remarkable stability and optimal biocompatibility, the amphiphilic pMPC coating constructed by surface-initiated polymerization holds promising potential for modifying PHVs.