Effectiveness of Mass Drug Administration on Neglected Tropical Diseases in Schoolchildren in Zanzibar, Tanzania.

Soil-transmitted helminths and Schistosoma haematobium affect more than 3 billion people globally and mainly occur in sub-Saharan Africa. The present study assessed the overall infection status of a 1716-student cohort of school-children in Zanzibar and applied mass drug administration (MDA) to the cohort from 2007 to 2009. Schools in Pemba, Zanzibar, had a much higher prevalence of soil-transmitted helminth infections than those in Unguja, and the Chaani, Ghana, and Machui schools of Unguja exhibited high S. haematobium infection rates. The MDA program only partially controlled parasite infections, owing to high rates of re-infection. The infection rate of S. haematobium across all 10 schools, for example, was only reduced by 1.8%, and even this change not significant, even though the S. haematobiuminfection rates of the Chaani and Mzambarauni schools were significantly reduced from 64.4 and 23.4%, respectively, at the first screening, to 7.3 and 2.3% at the last screening. The overall infection rate of Ascaris lumbricoides was reduced from 36.0% at the first screening to 22.6% at the last screening. However, the infection rates for both Trichuris trichiuraand hookworm were generally unaffected by MDA. In the future, parasite control programs should involve strategically designed MDA schedules and holistic intervention (e.g., sanitation improvement, hygiene behavior changes, and control of intermediated hosts).

'Fit for school' - a school-based water, sanitation and hygiene programme to improve child health: Results from a longitudinal study in Cambodia, Indonesia and Lao PDR.

BACKGROUND: The Fit for School (FIT) programme integrates school health and Water, Sanitation and Hygiene interventions, which are implemented by the Ministries of Education in four Southeast Asian countries. This paper describes the findings of a Health Outcome Study, which aimed to assess the two-year effect of the FIT programme on the parasitological, weight, and oral health status of children attending schools implementing the programme in Cambodia, Indonesia and Lao PDR. METHODS: The study was a non-randomized clustered controlled trial with a follow-up period of two years. The intervention group consisted of children attending public elementary schools implementing the FIT programme, including daily group handwashing with soap and toothbrushing with fluoride toothpaste, biannual school-based deworming; as well as construction of group handwashing facilities. Control schools implemented the regular government health education curriculum and biannual deworming. Per school, a random selection of six to seven-year-old grade-one students was drawn. Data on parasitological infections, anthropometric measurements, dental caries, odontogenic infections and sociodemographic characteristics were collected at baseline and at follow-up (24 months later). Data were analysed using the χ2-test, Mann Whitney U-test and multilevel logistic and linear regression. RESULTS: A total of 1847 children (mean age = 6.7 years, range 6.0-8.0 years) participated in the baseline survey. Of these, 1499 children were available for follow-up examination - 478, 486 and 535 children in Cambodia, Indonesia and Lao PDR, respectively. In all three countries, children in intervention schools had a lower increment in the number of decayed, missing and filled permanent teeth between baseline and follow-up, in comparison to children in controls schools. The preventive fraction was 24% at average. The prevalence of soil-transmitted helminth infection (which was unexpectedly low at baseline), the prevalence of thinness and the prevalence of odontogenic infections did not significantly differ between baseline and follow-up, nor between intervention and control schools. CONCLUSIONS: The study found that the FIT programme significantly contributed to the prevention of dental caries in children. This study describes the challenges, learnings and, moreover, the importance of conducting real-life implementation research to evaluate health programmes to transform school settings into healthy learning environments for children. The study is retrospectively registered with the German Clinical Trials Register, University of Freiburg (Trial registration number: DRKS00004485, date of registration: 26th of February, 2013).

Population deworming every 6 months with albendazole in 1 million pre-school children in North India: DEVTA, a cluster-randomised trial.

BACKGROUND: In north India many pre-school children are underweight, many have intestinal worms, and 2-3% die at ages 1·0-6·0 years. We used the state-wide Integrated Child Development Service (ICDS) infrastructure to help to assess any effects of regular deworming on mortality. METHODS: Participants in this cluster-randomised study were children in catchment areas of 8338 ICDS-staffed village child-care centres (under-5 population 1 million) in 72 administrative blocks. Groups of four neighbouring blocks were cluster-randomly allocated in Oxford between 6-monthly vitamin A (retinol capsule of 200,000 IU retinyl acetate in oil, to be cut and dripped into the child's mouth every 6 months), albendazole (400 mg tablet every 6 months), both, or neither (open control). Analyses of albendazole effects are by block (36 vs 36 clusters). The study spanned 5 calendar years, with 11 6-monthly mass-treatment days for all children then aged 6-72 months. Annually, one centre per block was randomly selected and visited by a study team 1-5 months after any trial deworming to sample faeces (for presence of worm eggs, reliably assessed only after mid-study), weigh children, and interview caregivers. Separately, all 8338 centres were visited every 6 months to monitor pre-school deaths (100,000 visits, 25,000 deaths at age 1·0-6·0 years [the primary outcome]). This trial is registered at ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT00222547. FINDINGS: Estimated compliance with 6-monthly albendazole was 86%. Among 2589 versus 2576 children surveyed during the second half of the study, nematode egg prevalence was 16% versus 36%, and most infection was light. After at least 2 years of treatment, weight at ages 3·0-6·0 years (standardised to age 4·0 years, 50% male) was 12·72 kg albendazole versus 12·68 kg control (difference 0·04 kg, 95% CI -0·14 to 0·21, p=0·66). Comparing the 36 albendazole-allocated versus 36 control blocks in analyses of the primary outcome, deaths per child-care centre at ages 1·0-6·0 years during the 5-year study were 3·00 (SE 0·07) albendazole versus 3·16 (SE 0·09) control, difference 0·16 (SE 0·11, mortality ratio 0·95, 95% CI 0·89 to 1·02, p=0·16), suggesting absolute risks of dying between ages 1·0 and 6·0 years of roughly 2·5% albendazole versus 2·6% control. No specific cause of death was significantly affected. INTERPRETATION: Existing ICDS village staff can be organised to deliver simple pre-school interventions sustainably for many years at low cost, but regular deworming had little effect on mortality in this lightly infected pre-school population. FUNDING: UK Medical Research Council, USAID, World Bank (albendazole donated by GlaxoSmithKline).

The Fit for School Health Outcome Study - a longitudinal survey to assess health impacts of an integrated school health programme in the Philippines.

BACKGROUND: Child health in many low- and middle-income countries lags behind international goals and affects children's education, well-being, and general development. Large-scale school health programmes can be effective in reducing preventable diseases through cost-effective interventions. This paper outlines the baseline and 1-year results of a longitudinal health study assessing the impact of the Fit for School Programme in the Philippines. METHODS: A longitudinal 4-year cohort study was conducted in the province of Camiguin, Mindanao (experimental group); an external concurrent control group was studied in Gingoog, Mindanao. The study has three experimental groups: group 1-daily handwashing with soap, daily brushing with fluoride toothpaste, biannual deworming with 400 mg albendazole (Essential Health Care Program [EHCP]); group 2-EHCP plus twice-a-year access to school-based Oral Urgent Treatment; group 3-EHCP plus weekly toothbrushing with high-fluoride concentration gel. A non-concurrent internal control group was also included. Baseline data on anthropometric indicators to calculate body mass index (BMI), soil-transmitted helminths (STH) infection in stool samples, and dental caries were collected in August 2009 and August 2010. Data were analysed to assess validity of the control group design, baseline, and 1-year results. RESULTS: In the cohort study, 412 children were examined at baseline and 341 1 year after intervention. The baseline results were in line with national averages for STH infection, BMI, and dental caries in group 1 and the control groups. Children lost to follow-up had similar baseline characteristics in the experimental and control groups. After 1 year, group 1 showed a significantly higher increase in mean BMI and lower prevalence of moderate to heavy STH infection than the external concurrent control group. The increases in caries and dental infections were reduced but not statistically significant. The results for groups 2 and 3 will be reported separately. CONCLUSIONS: Despite the short 1-year observation period, the study found a reduction in the prevalence of moderate to heavy STH infections, a rise in mean BMI, and a (statistically non-significant) reduction in dental caries and infections. The study design proved functional in actual field conditions. Critical aspects affecting the validity of cohort studies are analysed and discussed. TRIAL REGISTRATION: DRKS00003431 WHO Universal Trial Number U1111-1126-0718.

Essential health care package for children--the 'Fit for School' program in the Philippines.

High prevalence of poverty diseases such as diarrhoea, respiratory tract infection, parasitic infections and dental caries among children in the developing world calls for a return to primary health care principles with a focus on prevention. The 'Fit for School' program in the Philippines is based on international recommendations and offers a feasible, low-cost and realistic strategy using the principles of health promotion outlined in the Ottawa Charter. The cornerstone of the programme is the use of school structures for the implementation of preventive health strategies. 'Fit for School' consists of simple, evidence-based interventions like hand washing with soap, tooth brushing with fluoride toothpaste and other high impact interventions such as bi-annual de-worming as a routine school activity for all children visiting public elementary schools. The programme has been successfully rolled-out in the Philippines covering 630,000 children in 22 provinces and it is planned to reach 6 million children in the next three years. The programme is a partnership project between the Philippine Department of Education and the Local Government Units with support for capacity development activities from the German Development Cooperation and GlaxoSmithKline.

[Preliminary survey of a school health program implementation in Guinea]. / Enquête préliminaire à la mise en place d'un programme de santé scolaire en Guinée.

The Sectorial Adjustment Education Program implemented in Guinea by the Ministry of Pre-University Education in 1995 includes health-related measures. An important part is the fight against parasitosis and in particular against intestinal helminth infection which has been shown to impair cognitive function in school children. In order to obtain data for this purpose, a survey was carried out in 7 subprefectures across the country. A total of 1,649 children were examined to determine the prevalence in each school of macroscopic hematuria-related schistosomiasis and of various intestinal helminthiasis in stools. In 1468 of these children blood tests were also made to measure hemoglobin levels and detect malarial hematozoons. Overall prevalence rates were 60.0% for soil-transmitted nematodes, 9.1% for urinary schistosomiasis, 57.6% for blood plasmodium, and 57.0% for anemia. Hemoglobin levels were lower in children presenting plasmodium, multiple parasitic infection, and high ankylostoma burdens. Prevalence rates varied widely between regions indicating differences in therapeutic measures. In two villages more than 200 children not attending school who had been informed by school children were treated. This word-of-mouth effect shows that school health programs are also useful to reach children outside the school health system.

Epidemiological assessment of neglected diseases in children: lymphatic filariasis and soil-transmitted helminthiasis.

OBJECTIVE: To report the prevalence of lymphatic filariasis and intestinal parasitic infections in school-aged children living in a filariasis endemic area and discuss about the therapeutic regimen adopted in Brazil for the large-scale treatment of filariasis. METHODS: A cross-sectional study including 508 students aged 5-18 years old, enrolled in public schools within the city of Olinda, Pernambuco. The presence of intestinal parasites was analyzed using the Hoffman, Pons and Janer method on 3 stool samples. The diagnosis of filarial infection was performed using the rapid immunochromatographic technique (ICT) for the antigen, and the polycarbonate membrane filtration for the presence of microfilariae. Descriptive statistics of the data was performed using EpiInfo version 7. RESULTS: The prevalence of filariasis was 13.8% by ICT and 1.2% by microfilaraemia, while intestinal parasites were detected in 64.2% of cases. Concurrent diagnosis of filariasis and intestinal parasites was 9.4%, while 31.5% of students were parasite-free. Among individuals with intestinal parasites, 55% had one parasite and 45% had more than one parasite. Geohelminths occurred in 72.5% of the parasited individuals. In the group with filarial infection the prevalence of soil-transmitted helminthiasis was 54.5%. CONCLUSIONS: The simultaneous diagnosis of filariasis and intestinal parasites as well as the high frequency of geohelminths justify the need to reevaluate the treatment strategy used in the Brazilian filariasis large-scale treatment program.

Avaliação epidemiológica de doenças negligenciadas em escolares: filariose linfática e parasitoses intestinais / Epidemiological assessment of neglected diseases in children: lymphatic filariasis and soil-transmitted helminthiasis

OBJETIVO: Descrever a prevalência de infecção filarial e de parasitoses intestinais em escolares numa área endêmica de filariose e refletir sobre a opção terapêutica utilizada no Brasil no tratamento coletivo para filariose. MÉTODOS: Estudo transversal envolvendo 508 alunos na faixa etária de 5-18 anos cadastrados em escolas públicas do município de Olinda-PE. Realizou-se a investigação da parasitose intestinal em três amostras de fezes, analisadas pelo método de Hoffmann, Pons e Janer. A investigação filarial foi feita com teste antigênico pela técnica de imunocromatográfica rápida (ICT) e pesquisa de microfilárias, utilizando filtração em membrana de policarbonato. Para análise de dados utilizou-se a estatística descritiva através do programa EpiInfo versão 7. RESULTADOS: A prevalência de filariose por ICT foi de 13,8% e por microfilaremia de 1,2%, enquanto a de parasitoses intestinais foi 64,2%. A concomitância do diagnóstico filarial e de parasitoses intestinais foi de 9,4% e, 31,5% eram isentos de ambas as parasitoses. Entre os indivíduos com parasitoses intestinais, 55% eram monoparasitados e 45% poliparasitados. A presença de geohelmintos ocorreu em 72,5% dos parasitados. No grupo com infecção filarial a ocorrência de geohelmintíase foi de 54,5%. CONCLUSÕES: O diagnóstico simultâneo de infecção filarial e parasitose intestinal, bem como a elevada frequência de geohelmintos justificam uma reavaliação da estratégia terapêutica do tratamento coletivo no programa de filariose no Brasil.

OBJECTIVE: To report the prevalence of lymphatic filariasis and intestinal parasitic infections in school-aged children living in a filariasis endemic area and discuss about the therapeutic regimen adopted in Brazil for the large-scale treatment of filariasis. METHODS: A cross-sectional study including 508 students aged 5-18 years old, enrolled in public schools within the city of Olinda, Pernambuco. The presence of intestinal parasites was analyzed using the Hoffman, Pons and Janer method on 3 stool samples. The diagnosis of filarial infection was performed using the rapid immunochromatographic technique (ICT) for the antigen, and the polycarbonate membrane filtration for the presence of microfilariae. Descriptive statistics of the data was performed using EpiInfo version 7. RESULTS: The prevalence of filariasis was 13.8% by ICT and 1.2% by microfilaraemia, while intestinal parasites were detected in 64.2% of cases. Concurrent diagnosis of filariasis and intestinal parasites was 9.4%, while 31.5% of students were parasite-free. Among individuals with intestinal parasites, 55% had one parasite and 45% had more than one parasite. Geohelminths occurred in 72.5% of the parasited individuals. In the group with filarial infection the prevalence of soil-transmitted helminthiasis was 54.5%. CONCLUSIONS: The simultaneous diagnosis of filariasis and intestinal parasites as well as the high frequency of geohelminths justify the need to reevaluate the treatment strategy used in the Brazilian filariasis large-scale treatment program.