The Translational Landscape of the Human Heart.

Gene expression in human tissue has primarily been studied on the transcriptional level, largely neglecting translational regulation. Here, we analyze the translatomes of 80 human hearts to identify new translation events and quantify the effect of translational regulation. We show extensive translational control of cardiac gene expression, which is orchestrated in a process-specific manner. Translation downstream of predicted disease-causing protein-truncating variants appears to be frequent, suggesting inefficient translation termination. We identify hundreds of previously undetected microproteins, expressed from lncRNAs and circRNAs, for which we validate the protein products in vivo. The translation of microproteins is not restricted to the heart and prominent in the translatomes of human kidney and liver. We associate these microproteins with diverse cellular processes and compartments and find that many locate to the mitochondria. Importantly, dozens of microproteins are translated from lncRNAs with well-characterized noncoding functions, indicating previously unrecognized biology.

Evolutionary origins and interactomes of human, young microproteins and small peptides translated from short open reading frames.

All species continuously evolve short open reading frames (sORFs) that can be templated for protein synthesis and may provide raw materials for evolutionary adaptation. We analyzed the evolutionary origins of 7,264 recently cataloged human sORFs and found that most were evolutionarily young and had emerged de novo. We additionally identified 221 previously missed sORFs potentially translated into peptides of up to 15 amino acids-all of which are smaller than the smallest human microprotein annotated to date. To investigate the bioactivity of sORF-encoded small peptides and young microproteins, we subjected 266 candidates to a mass-spectrometry-based interactome screen with motif resolution. Based on these interactomes and additional cellular assays, we can associate several candidates with mRNA splicing, translational regulation, and endocytosis. Our work provides insights into the evolutionary origins and interaction potential of young and small proteins, thereby helping to elucidate this underexplored territory of the human proteome.

Inhibition of IL-11 signalling extends mammalian healthspan and lifespan.

For healthspan and lifespan, ERK, AMPK and mTORC1 represent critical pathways and inflammation is a centrally important hallmark1-7. Here we examined whether IL-11, a pro-inflammatory cytokine of the IL-6 family, has a negative effect on age-associated disease and lifespan. As mice age, IL-11 is upregulated across cell types and tissues to regulate an ERK-AMPK-mTORC1 axis to modulate cellular, tissue- and organismal-level ageing pathologies. Deletion of Il11 or Il11ra1 protects against metabolic decline, multi-morbidity and frailty in old age. Administration of anti-IL-11 to 75-week-old mice for 25 weeks improves metabolism and muscle function, and reduces ageing biomarkers and frailty across sexes. In lifespan studies, genetic deletion of Il11 extended the lives of mice of both sexes, by 24.9% on average. Treatment with anti-IL-11 from 75 weeks of age until death extends the median lifespan of male mice by 22.5% and of female mice by 25%. Together, these results demonstrate a role for the pro-inflammatory factor IL-11 in mammalian healthspan and lifespan. We suggest that anti-IL-11 therapy, which is currently in early-stage clinical trials for fibrotic lung disease, may provide a translational opportunity to determine the effects of IL-11 inhibition on ageing pathologies in older people.

A high-resolution map of human RNA translation.

Translated small open reading frames (smORFs) can have important regulatory roles and encode microproteins, yet their genome-wide identification has been challenging. We determined the ribosome locations across six primary human cell types and five tissues and detected 7,767 smORFs with translational profiles matching those of known proteins. The human genome was found to contain highly cell-type- and tissue-specific smORFs and a subset that encodes highly conserved amino acid sequences. Changes in the translational efficiency of upstream-encoded smORFs (uORFs) and the corresponding main ORFs predominantly occur in the same direction. Integration with 456 mass-spectrometry datasets confirms the presence of 603 small peptides at the protein level in humans and provides insights into the subcellular localization of these small proteins. This study provides a comprehensive atlas of high-confidence translated smORFs derived from primary human cells and tissues in order to provide a more complete understanding of the translated human genome.

A Neutralizing IL-11 Antibody Improves Renal Function and Increases Lifespan in a Mouse Model of Alport Syndrome.

BACKGROUND: Alport syndrome is a genetic disorder characterized by a defective glomerular basement membrane, tubulointerstitial fibrosis, inflammation, and progressive renal failure. IL-11 was recently implicated in fibrotic kidney disease, but its role in Alport syndrome is unknown. METHODS: We determined IL-11 expression by molecular analyses and in an Alport syndrome mouse model. We assessed the effects of a neutralizing IL-11 antibody (×203) versus an IgG control in Col4a3-/- mice (lacking the gene encoding a type IV collagen component) on renal tubule damage, function, fibrosis, and inflammation. Effects of ×203, the IgG control, an angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor (ramipril), or ramipril+X203 on lifespan were also studied. RESULTS: In Col4a3-/- mice, as kidney failure advanced, renal IL-11 levels increased, and IL-11 expression localized to tubular epithelial cells. The IL-11 receptor (IL-11RA1) is expressed in tubular epithelial cells and podocytes and is upregulated in tubular epithelial cells of Col4a3-/- mice. Administration of ×203 reduced albuminuria, improved renal function, and preserved podocyte numbers and levels of key podocyte proteins that are reduced in Col4a3-/- mice; these effects were accompanied by reduced fibrosis and inflammation, attenuation of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, and increased expression of regenerative markers. X203 attenuated pathogenic ERK and STAT3 pathways, which were activated in Col4a3-/- mice. The median lifespan of Col4a3-/- mice was prolonged 22% by ramipril, 44% with ×203, and 99% with ramipril+X203. CONCLUSIONS: In an Alport syndrome mouse model, renal IL-11 is upregulated, and neutralization of IL-11 reduces epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, fibrosis, and inflammation while improving renal function. Anti-IL-11 combined with ACE inhibition synergistically extends lifespan. This suggests that a therapeutic approach targeting IL-11 holds promise for progressive kidney disease in Alport syndrome.

IL11 Activates Pancreatic Stellate Cells and Causes Pancreatic Inflammation, Fibrosis and Atrophy in a Mouse Model of Pancreatitis.

Interleukin-11 (IL11) is important for fibrosis and inflammation, but its role in the pancreas is unclear. In pancreatitis, fibrosis, inflammation and organ dysfunction are associated with pancreatic stellate cell (PSC)-to-myofibroblast transformation. Here, we show that IL11 stimulation of PSCs, which specifically express IL11RA in the pancreas, results in transient STAT3 phosphorylation, sustained ERK activation and PSC activation. In contrast, IL6 stimulation of PSCs caused sustained STAT3 phosphorylation but did not result in ERK activation or PSC transformation. Pancreatitis factors, including TGFß, CTGF and PDGF, induced IL11 secretion from PSCs and a neutralising IL11RA antibody prevented PSC activation by these stimuli. This revealed an important ERK-dependent role for autocrine IL11 activity in PSCs. In mice, IL11 was increased in the pancreas after pancreatic duct ligation, and in humans, IL11 and IL11RA levels were elevated in chronic pancreatitis. Following pancreatic duct ligation, administration of anti-IL11RA to mice reduced pathologic (ERK, STAT, NF-κB) signalling, pancreatic atrophy, fibrosis and pro-inflammatory cytokine (TNFα, IL6 and IL1ß) levels. This is the first description of IL11-mediated activation of PSCs, and the data suggest IL11 as a stromal therapeutic target in pancreatitis.

IL11 is elevated in systemic sclerosis and IL11-dependent ERK signalling underlies TGFß-mediated activation of dermal fibroblasts.

OBJECTIVES: Interleukin 11 (IL11) is highly upregulated in skin and lung fibroblasts from patients with systemic sclerosis (SSc). Here we tested whether IL11 is mechanistically linked with activation of human dermal fibroblasts (HDFs) from patients with SSc or controls. METHODS: We measured serum IL11 levels in volunteers and patients with early diffuse SSc and manipulated IL11 signalling in HDFs using gain- and loss-of-function approaches that we combined with molecular and cellular phenotyping. RESULTS: In patients with SSc, serum IL11 levels are elevated as compared with healthy controls. All transforming growth factor beta (TGFß) isoforms induced IL11 secretion from HDFs, which highly express IL11 receptor α-subunit and the glycoprotein 130 (gp130) co-receptor, suggestive of an autocrine loop of IL11 activity in HDFs. IL11 stimulated ERK activation in HDFs and resulted in HDF-to-myofibroblast transformation and extracellular matrix secretion. The pro-fibrotic action of IL11 in HDFs appeared unrelated to STAT3 activity, independent of TGFß upregulation and was not associated with phosphorylation of SMAD2/3. Inhibition of IL11 signalling using either a neutralizing antibody against IL11 or siRNA against IL11RA reduced TGFß-induced HDF proliferation, matrix production and cell migration, which was phenocopied by pharmacological inhibition of ERK. CONCLUSIONS: These data reveal that autocrine IL11-dependent ERK activity alone or downstream of TGFß stimulation promotes fibrosis phenotypes in dermal fibroblasts and suggest IL11 as a potential therapeutic target in SSc.

Fibroblast-specific IL11 signaling drives chronic inflammation in murine fibrotic lung disease.

Repetitive pulmonary injury causes fibrosis and inflammation that underlies chronic lung diseases such as idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). Interleukin 11 (IL11) is important for pulmonary fibroblast activation but the contribution of fibroblast-specific IL11 activity to lung fibro-inflammation is not known. To address this gap in knowledge, we generated mice with loxP-flanked Il11ra1 and deleted the IL11 receptor in adult fibroblasts (CKO mice). In the bleomycin (BLM) model of lung fibrosis, CKO mice had reduced fibrosis, lesser fibroblast ERK activation, and diminished immune cell STAT3 phosphorylation. Following BLM injury, acute inflammation in CKO mice was similar to controls but chronic immune infiltrates and pro-inflammatory gene activation, including NF-kB phosphorylation, were notably reduced. Therapeutic prevention of IL11 activity with neutralizing antibodies mirrored the effects of genetic deletion of Il11ra1 in fibroblasts. These data reveal a new function for IL11 in pro-inflammatory lung fibroblasts and highlight the important contribution of the stroma to inflammation in pulmonary disease.

Widespread Translational Control of Fibrosis in the Human Heart by RNA-Binding Proteins.

BACKGROUND: Fibrosis is a common pathology in many cardiac disorders and is driven by the activation of resident fibroblasts. The global posttranscriptional mechanisms underlying fibroblast-to-myofibroblast conversion in the heart have not been explored. METHODS: Genome-wide changes of RNA transcription and translation during human cardiac fibroblast activation were monitored with RNA sequencing and ribosome profiling. We then used RNA-binding protein-based analyses to identify translational regulators of fibrogenic genes. The integration with cardiac ribosome occupancy levels of 30 dilated cardiomyopathy patients demonstrates that these posttranscriptional mechanisms are also active in the diseased fibrotic human heart. RESULTS: We generated nucleotide-resolution translatome data during the transforming growth factor ß1-driven cellular transition of human cardiac fibroblasts to myofibroblasts. This identified dynamic changes of RNA transcription and translation at several time points during the fibrotic response, revealing transient and early-responder genes. Remarkably, about one-third of all changes in gene expression in activated fibroblasts are subject to translational regulation, and dynamic variation in ribosome occupancy affects protein abundance independent of RNA levels. Targets of RNA-binding proteins were strongly enriched in posttranscriptionally regulated genes, suggesting genes such as MBNL2 can act as translational activators or repressors. Ribosome occupancy in the hearts of patients with dilated cardiomyopathy suggested the same posttranscriptional regulatory network was underlying cardiac fibrosis. Key network hubs include RNA-binding proteins such as Pumilio RNA binding family member 2 (PUM2) and Quaking (QKI) that work in concert to regulate the translation of target transcripts in human diseased hearts. Furthermore, silencing of both PUM2 and QKI inhibits the transition of fibroblasts toward profibrotic myofibroblasts in response to transforming growth factor ß1. CONCLUSIONS: We reveal widespread translational effects of transforming growth factor ß1 and define novel posttranscriptional regulatory networks that control the fibroblast-to-myofibroblast transition. These networks are active in human heart disease, and silencing of hub genes limits fibroblast activation. Our findings show the central importance of translational control in fibrosis and highlight novel pathogenic mechanisms in heart failure.

Inhibiting Interleukin 11 Signaling Reduces Hepatocyte Death and Liver Fibrosis, Inflammation, and Steatosis in Mouse Models of Nonalcoholic Steatohepatitis.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: We studied the role of interleukin 11 (IL11) signaling in the pathogenesis of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) using hepatic stellate cells (HSCs), hepatocytes, and mouse models of NASH. METHODS: We stimulated mouse and human fibroblasts, HSCs, or hepatocytes with IL11 and other cytokines and analyzed them by imaging, immunoblot, and functional assays and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. Mice were given injections of IL11. Mice with disruption of the interleukin 11 receptor subunit alpha1 gene (Il11ra1-/-) mice and Il11ra1+/+ mice were fed a high-fat methionine- and choline-deficient diet (HFMCD) or a Western diet with liquid fructose (WDF) to induce steatohepatitis; control mice were fed normal chow. db/db mice were fed with methionine- and choline-deficient diet for 12 weeks and C57BL/6 NTac were fed with HFMCD for 10 weeks or WDF for 16 weeks. Some mice were given intraperitoneal injections of anti-IL11 (X203), anti-IL11RA (X209), or a control antibody at different timepoints on the diets. Livers and blood were collected; blood samples were analyzed by biochemistry and liver tissues were analyzed by histology, RNA sequencing, immunoblots, immunohistochemistry, hydroxyproline, and mass cytometry time of flight assays. RESULTS: HSCs incubated with cytokines produced IL11, resulting in activation (phosphorylation) of ERK and expression of markers of fibrosis. Livers of mice given injections of IL11 became damaged, with increased markers of fibrosis, hepatocyte cell death and inflammation. Following the HFMCD or WDF, livers from Il11ra1-/- mice had reduced steatosis, fibrosis, expression of markers of inflammation and steatohepatitis, compared to and Il11ra1+/+ mice on the same diets. Depending on the time of administration of anti-IL11 or anti-IL11RA antibodies to wild-type mice on the HFMCD or WDF, or to db/db mice on the methionine and choline-deficient diet, the antibodies prevented, stopped, or reversed development of fibrosis and steatosis. Blood samples from Il11ra1+/+ mice fed the WDF and given injections of anti-IL11 or anti-IL11RA, as well as from Il11ra1-/- mice fed WDF, had lower serum levels of lipids and glucose than mice not injected with antibody or with disruption of Il11ra1. CONCLUSIONS: Neutralizing antibodies that block IL11 signaling reduce fibrosis, steatosis, hepatocyte death, inflammation and hyperglycemia in mice with diet-induced steatohepatitis. These antibodies also improve the cardiometabolic profile of mice and might be developed for the treatment of NASH.

Genomic landscape of rat strain and substrain variation.

BACKGROUND: Since the completion of the rat reference genome in 2003, whole-genome sequencing data from more than 40 rat strains have become available. These data represent the broad range of strains that are used in rat research including commonly used substrains. Currently, this wealth of information cannot be used to its full extent, because the variety of different variant calling algorithms employed by different groups impairs comparison between strains. In addition, all rat whole genome sequencing studies to date used an outdated reference genome for analysis (RGSC3.4 released in 2004). RESULTS: Here we present a comprehensive, multi-sample and uniformly called set of genetic variants in 40 rat strains, including 19 substrains. We reanalyzed all primary data using a recent version of the rat reference assembly (RGSC5.0 released in 2012) and identified over 12 million genomic variants (SNVs, indels and structural variants) among the 40 strains. 28,318 SNVs are specific to individual substrains, which may be explained by introgression from other unsequenced strains and ongoing evolution by genetic drift. Substrain SNVs may have a larger predicted functional impact compared to older shared SNVs. CONCLUSIONS: In summary we present a comprehensive catalog of uniformly analyzed genetic variants among 40 widely used rat inbred strains based on the RGSC5.0 assembly. This represents a valuable resource, which will facilitate rat functional genomic research. In line with previous observations, our genome-wide analyses do not show evidence for contribution of multiple ancestral founder rat subspecies to the currently used rat inbred strains, as is the case for mouse. In addition, we find that the degree of substrain variation is highly variable between strains, which is of importance for the correct interpretation of experimental data from different labs.

Human model of primary carnitine deficiency cardiomyopathy reveals ferroptosis as a novel mechanism.

Primary carnitine deficiency (PCD) is an autosomal recessive monogenic disorder caused by mutations in SLC22A5. This gene encodes for OCTN2, which transports the essential metabolite carnitine into the cell. PCD patients suffer from muscular weakness and dilated cardiomyopathy. Two OCTN2-defective human induced pluripotent stem cell lines were generated, carrying a full OCTN2 knockout and a homozygous OCTN2 (N32S) loss-of-function mutation. OCTN2-defective genotypes showed lower force development and resting length in engineered heart tissue format compared with isogenic control. Force was sensitive to fatty acid-based media and associated with lipid accumulation, mitochondrial alteration, higher glucose uptake, and metabolic remodeling, replicating findings in animal models. The concordant results of OCTN2 (N32S) and -knockout emphasizes the relevance of OCTN2 for these findings. Importantly, genome-wide analysis and pharmacological inhibitor experiments identified ferroptosis, an iron- and lipid-dependent cell death pathway associated with fibroblast activation as a novel PCD cardiomyopathy disease mechanism.

Targeting endogenous kidney regeneration using anti-IL11 therapy in acute and chronic models of kidney disease.

The kidney has large regenerative capacity, but this is compromised when kidney damage is excessive and renal tubular epithelial cells (TECs) undergo SNAI1-driven growth arrest. Here we investigate the role of IL11 in TECs, kidney injury and renal repair. IL11 stimulation of TECs induces ERK- and p90RSK-mediated GSK3ß inactivation, SNAI1 upregulation and pro-inflammatory gene expression. Mice with acute kidney injury upregulate IL11 in TECs leading to SNAI1 expression and kidney dysfunction, which is not seen in Il11 deleted mice or in mice administered a neutralizing IL11 antibody in either preemptive or treatment modes. In acute kidney injury, anti-TGFß reduces renal fibrosis but exacerbates inflammation and tubule damage whereas anti-IL11 reduces all pathologies. Mice with TEC-specific deletion of Il11ra1 have reduced pathogenic signaling and are protected from renal injury-induced inflammation, fibrosis, and failure. In a model of chronic kidney disease, anti-IL11 therapy promotes TEC proliferation and parenchymal regeneration, reverses fibroinflammation and restores renal mass and function. These data highlight IL11-induced mesenchymal transition of injured TECs as an important renal pathology and suggest IL11 as a therapeutic target for restoring stalled endogenous regeneration in the diseased kidney.

Pathogenic variants damage cell composition and single cell transcription in cardiomyopathies.

Pathogenic variants in genes that cause dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) and arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy (ACM) convey high risks for the development of heart failure through unknown mechanisms. Using single-nucleus RNA sequencing, we characterized the transcriptome of 880,000 nuclei from 18 control and 61 failing, nonischemic human hearts with pathogenic variants in DCM and ACM genes or idiopathic disease. We performed genotype-stratified analyses of the ventricular cell lineages and transcriptional states. The resultant DCM and ACM ventricular cell atlas demonstrated distinct right and left ventricular responses, highlighting genotype-associated pathways, intercellular interactions, and differential gene expression at single-cell resolution. Together, these data illuminate both shared and distinct cellular and molecular architectures of human heart failure and suggest candidate therapeutic targets.

The pro-regenerative effects of hyperIL6 in drug-induced liver injury are unexpectedly due to competitive inhibition of IL11 signaling.

It is generally accepted that IL6-mediated STAT3 signaling in hepatocytes, mediated via glycoprotein 130 (gp130; IL6ST), is beneficial and that the synthetic IL6:IL6ST fusion protein (HyperIL6) promotes liver regeneration. Recently, autocrine IL11 activity that also acts via IL6ST but uses ERK rather than STAT3 to signal, was found to be hepatotoxic. Here we examined whether the beneficial effects of HyperIL6 could reflect unappreciated competitive inhibition of IL11-dependent IL6ST signaling. In human and mouse hepatocytes, HyperIL6 reduced N-acetyl-p-aminophenol (APAP)-induced cell death independent of STAT3 activation and instead, dose-dependently, inhibited IL11-related signaling and toxicities. In mice, expression of HyperIl6 reduced ERK activation and promoted STAT3-independent hepatic regeneration (PCNA, Cyclin D1, Ki67) following administration of either IL11 or APAP. Inhibition of putative intrinsic IL6 trans-signaling had no effect on liver regeneration in mice. Following APAP, mice deleted for Il11 exhibited spontaneous liver repair but HyperIl6, despite robustly activating STAT3, had no effect on liver regeneration in this strain. These data show that synthetic IL6ST binding proteins such as HyperIL6 can have unexpected, on-target effects and suggest IL11, not IL6, as important for liver regeneration.

Molecular Dissection of Pro-Fibrotic IL11 Signaling in Cardiac and Pulmonary Fibroblasts.

In fibroblasts, TGFß1 stimulates IL11 upregulation that leads to an autocrine loop of IL11-dependent pro-fibrotic protein translation. The signaling pathways downstream of IL11, which acts via IL6ST, are contentious with both STAT3 and ERK implicated. Here we dissect IL11 signaling in fibroblasts and study IL11-dependent protein synthesis pathways in the context of approved anti-fibrotic drug mechanisms of action. We show that IL11-induced ERK activation drives fibrogenesis and while STAT3 phosphorylation (pSTAT3) is also seen, this appears unrelated to fibroblast activation. Ironically, recombinant human IL11, which has been used extensively in mouse experiments to infer STAT3 activity downstream of IL11, increases pSTAT3 in Il11ra1 null mouse fibroblasts. Unexpectedly, inhibition of STAT3 was found to induce severe proteotoxic ER stress, generalized fibroblast dysfunction and cell death. In contrast, inhibition of ERK prevented fibroblast activation in the absence of ER stress. IL11 stimulated an axis of ERK/mTOR/P70RSK protein translation and its selectivity for Collagen 1 synthesis was ascribed to an EPRS-regulated, ribosome stalling mechanism. Surprisingly, the anti-fibrotic drug nintedanib caused dose-dependent ER stress and lesser pSTAT3 expression. Pirfenidone had no effect on ER stress whereas anti-IL11 specifically inhibited the ERK/mTOR axis while reducing ER stress. These studies define the translation-specific signaling pathways downstream of IL11, intersect immune and metabolic signaling and reveal unappreciated effects of nintedanib.

Therapeutic Targeting of Interleukin-11 Signalling Reduces Pressure Overload-Induced Cardiac Fibrosis in Mice.

There are currently no specific treatments for cardiac fibrosis. We tested the efficacy of a neutralising anti-IL11 antibody (X203) to reduce cardiac fibrosis in two preclinical models: transverse aortic constriction (TAC) and chronic angiotensin II infusion (AngII). In the first model, male C57BL/6J mice were subjected to TAC for 2 weeks. In the second model, mice received continuous angiotensin II for 4 weeks via subcutaneous pump. In both models, mice received either 20 mg/kg of X203 or isotype-control antibody twice-weekly, starting 24 h after surgery. Cardiac fibrosis and extracellular matrix gene expression were assessed by RT-qPCR, Western blot, histology and collagen (hydroxyproline) assays. In both models, X203 significantly reduced pro-fibrotic gene expression and myocardial fibrosis (TAC: 51% reduction in total collagen, P < 0.001, 39% in perivascular fibrosis, P < 0.001; AngII: 17% reduction in total collagen, P = 0.04, 83% in perivascular fibrosis, P < 0.001). Pharmacological targeting of IL11 reduces cardiac fibrosis in preclinical models. Figa Graphical Abstract.

A trans locus causes a ribosomopathy in hypertrophic hearts that affects mRNA translation in a protein length-dependent fashion.

BACKGROUND: Little is known about the impact of trans-acting genetic variation on the rates with which proteins are synthesized by ribosomes. Here, we investigate the influence of such distant genetic loci on the efficiency of mRNA translation and define their contribution to the development of complex disease phenotypes within a panel of rat recombinant inbred lines. RESULTS: We identify several tissue-specific master regulatory hotspots that each control the translation rates of multiple proteins. One of these loci is restricted to hypertrophic hearts, where it drives a translatome-wide and protein length-dependent change in translational efficiency, altering the stoichiometric translation rates of sarcomere proteins. Mechanistic dissection of this locus across multiple congenic lines points to a translation machinery defect, characterized by marked differences in polysome profiles and misregulation of the small nucleolar RNA SNORA48. Strikingly, from yeast to humans, we observe reproducible protein length-dependent shifts in translational efficiency as a conserved hallmark of translation machinery mutants, including those that cause ribosomopathies. Depending on the factor mutated, a pre-existing negative correlation between protein length and translation rates could either be enhanced or reduced, which we propose to result from mRNA-specific imbalances in canonical translation initiation and reinitiation rates. CONCLUSIONS: We show that distant genetic control of mRNA translation is abundant in mammalian tissues, exemplified by a single genomic locus that triggers a translation-driven molecular mechanism. Our work illustrates the complexity through which genetic variation can drive phenotypic variability between individuals and thereby contribute to complex disease.

Redefining IL11 as a regeneration-limiting hepatotoxin and therapeutic target in acetaminophen-induced liver injury.

Acetaminophen (N-acetyl-p-aminophenol; APAP) toxicity is a common cause of liver damage. In the mouse model of APAP-induced liver injury (AILI), interleukin 11 (IL11) is highly up-regulated and administration of recombinant human IL11 (rhIL11) has been shown to be protective. Here, we demonstrate that the beneficial effect of rhIL11 in the mouse model of AILI is due to its inhibition of endogenous mouse IL11 activity. Our results show that species-matched IL11 behaves like a hepatotoxin. IL11 secreted from APAP-damaged human and mouse hepatocytes triggered an autocrine loop of NADPH oxidase 4 (NOX4)-dependent cell death, which occurred downstream of APAP-initiated mitochondrial dysfunction. Hepatocyte-specific deletion of Il11 receptor subunit alpha chain 1 (Il11ra1) in adult mice protected against AILI despite normal APAP metabolism and glutathione (GSH) depletion. Mice with germline deletion of Il11 were also protected from AILI, and deletion of Il1ra1 or Il11 was associated with reduced c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) activation and quickly restored GSH concentrations. Administration of a neutralizing IL11RA antibody reduced AILI in mice across genetic backgrounds and promoted survival when administered up to 10 hours after APAP. Inhibition of IL11 signaling was associated with the up-regulation of markers of liver regenerations: cyclins and proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) as well as with phosphorylation of retinoblastoma protein (RB) 24 hours after AILI. Our data suggest that species-matched IL11 is a hepatotoxin and that IL11 signaling might be an effective therapeutic target for APAP-induced liver damage.

Hepatocyte-specific IL11 cis-signaling drives lipotoxicity and underlies the transition from NAFLD to NASH.

IL11 is important for fibrosis in non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) but its role beyond the stroma in liver disease is unclear. Here, we investigate the role of IL11 in hepatocyte lipotoxicity. Hepatocytes highly express IL11RA and secrete IL11 in response to lipid loading. Autocrine IL11 activity causes hepatocyte death through NOX4-derived ROS, activation of ERK, JNK and caspase-3, impaired mitochondrial function and reduced fatty acid oxidation. Paracrine IL11 activity stimulates hepatic stellate cells and causes fibrosis. In mouse models of NASH, hepatocyte-specific deletion of Il11ra1 protects against liver steatosis, fibrosis and inflammation while reducing serum glucose, cholesterol and triglyceride levels and limiting obesity. In mice deleted for Il11ra1, restoration of IL11 cis-signaling in hepatocytes reconstitutes steatosis and inflammation but not fibrosis. We found no evidence for the existence of IL6 or IL11 trans-signaling in hepatocytes or NASH. These data show that IL11 modulates hepatocyte metabolism and suggests a mechanism for NAFLD to NASH transition.