TRY plant trait database - enhanced coverage and open access.

Plant traits-the morphological, anatomical, physiological, biochemical and phenological characteristics of plants-determine how plants respond to environmental factors, affect other trophic levels, and influence ecosystem properties and their benefits and detriments to people. Plant trait data thus represent the basis for a vast area of research spanning from evolutionary biology, community and functional ecology, to biodiversity conservation, ecosystem and landscape management, restoration, biogeography and earth system modelling. Since its foundation in 2007, the TRY database of plant traits has grown continuously. It now provides unprecedented data coverage under an open access data policy and is the main plant trait database used by the research community worldwide. Increasingly, the TRY database also supports new frontiers of trait-based plant research, including the identification of data gaps and the subsequent mobilization or measurement of new data. To support this development, in this article we evaluate the extent of the trait data compiled in TRY and analyse emerging patterns of data coverage and representativeness. Best species coverage is achieved for categorical traits-almost complete coverage for 'plant growth form'. However, most traits relevant for ecology and vegetation modelling are characterized by continuous intraspecific variation and trait-environmental relationships. These traits have to be measured on individual plants in their respective environment. Despite unprecedented data coverage, we observe a humbling lack of completeness and representativeness of these continuous traits in many aspects. We, therefore, conclude that reducing data gaps and biases in the TRY database remains a key challenge and requires a coordinated approach to data mobilization and trait measurements. This can only be achieved in collaboration with other initiatives.

Tree rings provide no evidence of a CO2 fertilization effect in old-growth subalpine forests of western Canada.

Atmospheric CO2 concentrations are now 1.7 times higher than the preindustrial values. Although photosynthetic rates are hypothesized to increase in response to rising atmospheric CO2 concentrations, results from in situ experiments are inconsistent in supporting a CO2 fertilization effect of tree growth. Tree-ring data provide a historical record of tree-level productivity that can be used to evaluate long-term responses of tree growth. We use tree-ring data from old-growth, subalpine forests of western Canada that have not had a stand-replacing disturbance for hundreds of years to determine if growth has increased over 19th and 20th centuries. Our sample consisted of 5,858 trees belonging to five species distributed over two sites in the coastal zone and two in the continental climate of the interior. We calculated annual increments in tree basal area, adjusted these increments for tree size and age, and tested whether there was a detectable temporal trend in tree growth over the 19th and 20th centuries. We found a similar pattern in 20th century growth trends among all species at all sites. Growth during the 19th century was mostly stable or increasing, with the exception of one of the coastal sites, where tree growth was slightly decreasing; whereas growth during the 20th century consistently decreased. The unexpected decrease in growth during the 20th century indicates that there was no CO2 fertilization effect on photosynthesis. We compared the growth trends from our four sites to the trends simulated by seven Earth System Models, and saw that most of the models did not predict these growth declines. Overall, our results indicate that these old-growth forests are unlikely to increase their carbon storage capacity in response to rising atmospheric CO2 , and thus are unlikely to contribute substantially to offsetting future carbon emissions.

Past tree influence and prescribed fire exert strong controls on reassembly of mountain grasslands after tree removal.

Woody-plant encroachment represents a global threat to grasslands. Although the causes and consequences of this regime shift have received substantial attention, the processes that constrain reassembly of the grassland state remain poorly understood. We experimentally tested two potentially important controls on reassembly, the past influence of trees and the effects of fire, in conifer-invaded grasslands (mountain meadows) of western Oregon. Previously, we had reconstructed the history of tree invasion at fine spatial and temporal resolution. Using small subplots (10 × 10 m) nested within larger (1-ha) experimental plots, we characterized the fine-scale mosaic of encroachment states, ranging from remnant meadow openings (minimally altered by trees) to century-old forests (lacking meadow species). Subsequently, we removed trees from six plots, of which three were broadcast burned and three remained unburned (except for localized burn piles). Within each plot, subplots were sampled before and periodically after tree removal to quantify the individual and interactive effects of past tree influence and fire on grassland community reassembly. Adjacent, uninvaded meadows served as reference sites. "Past tree influence" was defined as the multivariate (structural or compositional) distance of subplots to reference meadows prior to tree removal. "Reassembly" was defined as the distance, or change in distance, to reference meadows at final sampling. Consistent with theory, we observed greater reassembly of plant community structure than of composition, as loss of meadow specialists was offset by establishment of disturbance-adapted meadow generalists of similar growth form. Nevertheless, eight years after tree removal, most subplots remained structurally and compositionally distinct from reference meadows. Furthermore, fire had both destabilizing and inhibitory effects: it reduced survival of meadow specialists across the range of encroachment states and, where past tree influence was greater, it stalled reassembly by promoting expansion of a highly competitive native meadow sedge. The slow pace of reassembly, despite abundant open space, suggests strong seed limitation: a condition exacerbated by burning. We present a novel test of the importance of past tree influence and fire for restoration of tree-invaded grasslands, offering insights into how constraints on community reassembly vary along a continuum of tree-altered states.

A synthesis of radial growth patterns preceding tree mortality.

Tree mortality is a key factor influencing forest functions and dynamics, but our understanding of the mechanisms leading to mortality and the associated changes in tree growth rates are still limited. We compiled a new pan-continental tree-ring width database from sites where both dead and living trees were sampled (2970 dead and 4224 living trees from 190 sites, including 36 species), and compared early and recent growth rates between trees that died and those that survived a given mortality event. We observed a decrease in radial growth before death in ca. 84% of the mortality events. The extent and duration of these reductions were highly variable (1-100 years in 96% of events) due to the complex interactions among study species and the source(s) of mortality. Strong and long-lasting declines were found for gymnosperms, shade- and drought-tolerant species, and trees that died from competition. Angiosperms and trees that died due to biotic attacks (especially bark-beetles) typically showed relatively small and short-term growth reductions. Our analysis did not highlight any universal trade-off between early growth and tree longevity within a species, although this result may also reflect high variability in sampling design among sites. The intersite and interspecific variability in growth patterns before mortality provides valuable information on the nature of the mortality process, which is consistent with our understanding of the physiological mechanisms leading to mortality. Abrupt changes in growth immediately before death can be associated with generalized hydraulic failure and/or bark-beetle attack, while long-term decrease in growth may be associated with a gradual decline in hydraulic performance coupled with depletion in carbon reserves. Our results imply that growth-based mortality algorithms may be a powerful tool for predicting gymnosperm mortality induced by chronic stress, but not necessarily so for angiosperms and in case of intense drought or bark-beetle outbreaks.

The Medicaid expansion is not such a good deal for states or the poor.

In the wake of the Supreme Court decision, states should not rush to expand eligibility for Medicaid. They cannot be certain that the federal support promised in the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act will remain available, and a better deal might be possible after the election. Adding millions more to Medicaid rolls will exacerbate existing problems of access to providers. A more humane policy would give everyone--even the poor --a choice of health plans.

Grassland restoration with and without fire: evidence from a tree-removal experiment.

Forest encroachment threatens the biological diversity of grasslands globally. Positive feedbacks can reinforce the process, affecting soils and ground vegetation, ultimately leading to replacement of grassland by forest species. We tested whether restoration treatments (tree removal, with or without fire) reversed effects of nearly two centuries of encroachment by Abies grandis and Pinus contorta into dry, montane meadows in the Cascade Range, Oregon, USA. In nine, 1-ha plots containing a patchy mosaic of meadow openings and forests of varying age (20 to > 140 yr), we compared three treatments affecting the ground vegetation: control (no trees removed), unburned (trees removed, slash burned in piles leaving 90% of the area unburned), and burned (trees removed, slash broadcast burned). We quantified changes over 3-4 years in soils, abundance and richness of species with differing habitat associations (meadow, forest, and ruderal), and recruitment of conifers. Except for a transient increase in available N (especially in burn scars), effects of burning on soils were minimal due, in part, to mixing by gophers. Tree removal greatly benefited meadow species at the expense of forest herbs. Cover and richness of meadow species increased by 47% and 38% of initial values in unburned plots, but changed minimally in burned plots. In contrast, cover and richness of forest herbs declined by 44% and 26% in unburned plots and by 79% and 58% in burned plots. Ruderal species and conifer seedlings were uncommon in both treatments. Although vegetation was consumed beneath burn piles, meadow species recovered significantly after three years. Long-term tree presence did not preclude recovery of meadow species; in fact, colonization was greater in older than in younger forests. In sum, temporal trends were positive for most indicators, suggesting strong potential for restoration. Contrary to conventional wisdom, tree removal without fire may be sufficient to shift the balance from forest to meadow species. In meadows characterized by historically infrequent fire, small-scale disturbances and competitive interactions may be more critical to ecosystem maintenance and restoration. Managers facing the worldwide phenomenon of tree invasion should critically evaluate the ecological vs. operational need for fire in ecosystem restoration.

Availability of prices for shoppable services on hospital internet sites.

OBJECTIVES: A regulation from CMS required that, starting January 1, 2021, all US hospitals publicly display the cash price and minimum and minimum negotiated charge for 300 "shoppable services." We evaluated compliance with CMS requirements among highly respected US hospitals. STUDY DESIGN: We conducted a cross-sectional study of hospital websites. METHODS: We evaluated the public websites of the 20 hospitals listed in the 2020-2021 US News & World Report honor roll between February 1 and February 14, 2021. We selected 2 imaging studies (brain MRI and abdominal ultrasound) and 3 hospital services (cardiac valve surgery, total joint replacement, and vaginal childbirth). For each service and hospital, we determined whether the discounted cash price and minimum negotiated charge were displayed and, if displayed, what the prices were. RESULTS: Among our 20 hospitals, 13 (65%) displayed the cash prices for the MRI and ultrasound, 8 (40%) for valve surgery, 10 (50%) for joint replacement, and 10 (50%) for childbirth. Only 1 (5%) displayed the minimum negotiated price for the 2 imaging studies and none for any of the hospital services. The mean (range) cash price for MRI was $3793 ($464-$6215) and for ultrasound was $767 ($136-$1391). The mean (range) cash price for cardiac surgery was $236,125 ($72,250-$349,782); for joint replacement, $46,008 ($22,170-$71,985); and for childbirth, $19,568 ($7314-$29,068). CONCLUSIONS: In an early assessment, a significant percentage of US hospitals were not in compliance with new price transparency legislation. Moreover, there is wide variation in prices among hospitals for identical services. These price differences suggest the potential for significant cost savings for patients.

Improve Markets, Not Government Controls, for Real Health Reform.

Proposals to replace the existing mix of public and private health financing with a fully nationalized government system ("Medicare for All") fail to address fundamental problems of high cost, overutilization, and inefficiency. Those proposals are a reaction to the Affordable Care Act, which provided new insurance subsidies but did little to solve the cost problem. Stabilizing the individual insurance market is not the goal. Reform should focus on making the entire insurance market and the health delivery system more efficient and more equitable by promoting consumer choice, market competition, private initiative, and state experimentation.

Variation in responses of late-seral herbs to disturbance and environmental stress.

Clonal herbs that attain maximum development in late-seral forest are often assumed to have similar responses to disturbance and to be functionally equivalent. However, little is known about the demographic or physiological responses of these plants to disturbance or to the altered conditions of the post-disturbance environment. Following harvest of a mature coniferous forest, we compared abundance, demographic changes, and physiological acclimation of three clonal herbs (Asarum caudatum, Clintonia uniflora, and Pyrola picta) that differ in belowground morphology and leaf longevity. We measured ramet density, leaf area, and demographic variables (survival, clonal growth, flowering, and seedling establishment) before and for two years after harvest, and in adjacent undisturbed forest. Acclimation to increased solar radiation was assessed two years after harvest by measuring leaf mass per unit area (LMA) and chlorophyll a:b ratios of leaves produced in the current year. Although initial declines in abundance were similar, demographic responses indicate that patterns of recovery varied greatly among species. Two years after logging, ramet survival and clonal growth (production of new ramets) of Clintonia were greater in the harvest area than in the forest. Asarum had lower survival in the harvest area, but greater clonal growth, and Pyrola showed no difference in either survival or growth between environments. Only Asarum produced seedlings, although their survival was low in the harvest area. All species had higher LMA in the harvest area, but only Clintonia (with annual leaves) had a higher chlorophyll a:b ratio, suggesting the greatest potential for acclimation to increased light. Our results demonstrate that forest herbs with greater rhizome plasticity and shorter leaf duration have greater potential to acclimate after disturbance than those with rigid architectures and persistent leaves. Thus, species with comparable successional roles can vary substantially in their demographic and physiological responses to disturbance, with potential consequences for long-term recovery.