Large spectrum of lissencephaly and pachygyria phenotypes resulting from de novo missense mutations in tubulin alpha 1A (TUBA1A).

We have recently reported a missense mutation in exon 4 of the tubulin alpha 1A (Tuba1a) gene in a hyperactive N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea (ENU) induced mouse mutant with abnormal lamination of the hippocampus. Neuroanatomical similarities between the Tuba1a mutant mouse and mice deficient for Doublecortin (Dcx) and Lis1 genes, and the well-established functional interaction between DCX and microtubules (MTs), led us to hypothesize that mutations in TUBA1A (TUBA3, previous symbol), the human homolog of Tuba1a, might give rise to cortical malformations. This hypothesis was subsequently confirmed by the identification of TUBA1A mutations in two patients with lissencephaly and pachygyria, respectively. Here we report additional TUBA1A mutations identified in six unrelated patients with a large spectrum of brain dysgeneses. The de novo occurrence was shown for all mutations, including one recurrent mutation (c.790C>T, p.R264C) detected in two patients, and two mutations that affect the same amino acid (c.1205G>A, p.R402H; c.1204C>T, p.R402C) detected in two other patients. Retrospective examination of MR images suggests that patients with TUBA1A mutations share not only cortical dysgenesis, but also cerebellar, hippocampal, corpus callosum, and brainstem abnormalities. Interestingly, the specific high level of Tuba1a expression throughout the period of central nervous system (CNS) development, shown by in situ hybridization using mouse embryos, is in accordance with the brain-restricted developmental phenotype caused by TUBA1A mutations. All together, these results, in combination with previously reported data, strengthen the relevance of the known interaction between MTs and DCX, and highlight the importance of the MTs/DCX complex in the neuronal migration process.

Neuroanatomical distribution of ARX in brain and its localisation in GABAergic neurons.

Recent human genetics approaches identified the Aristaless-related homeobox (ARX) gene as the causative gene in X-linked infantile spasms, Partington syndrome, and non-syndromic mental retardation as well as in forms of lissencephaly with abnormal genitalia. The ARX predicted protein belongs to a large family of homeoproteins and is characterised by a C-terminal Aristaless domain and an octapeptide domain near the N-terminus. In order to learn more about ARX function, we have studied in detail Arx expression in the central nervous system during mouse embryonic development as well as in the adult. During early stages of development, Arx is expressed in a significant proportion of neurons in the cortex, the striatum, the ganglionic eminences and also in the spinal cord. In the adult, expression of Arx is still present and restricted to regions that are known to be rich in GABAergic neurons such as the amygdala and the olfactory bulb. A possible role for Arx in this type of neurons is further reinforced by the expression of Arx in a subset of GABAergic interneurons in young and mature primary cultures of cortical neuronal cells as well as in vivo. Moreover, these data could explain the occurrence of seizures in the great majority of patients with an ARX mutation, due to mislocalisation or dysfunction of GABAergic neurons. We also performed ARX wild-type and mutant over-expression experiments and found that the different ARX mutations tested did not modify the morphology of the cells. Moreover, no abnormal cell death or protein aggregation was observed, hence suggesting that more subtle pathogenic mechanisms are involved.

IL1-receptor accessory protein-like 1 (IL1RAPL1), a protein involved in cognitive functions, regulates N-type Ca2+-channel and neurite elongation.

Null mutations in the IL1-receptor accessory protein-like 1 gene (IL1RAPL1) are responsible for an inherited X-linked form of cognitive impairment. IL1RAPL1 protein physically interacts with neuronal calcium sensor-1 (NCS-1), but the functional impact of the IL1RAPL1/NCS-1 interaction remains unknown. Here, we demonstrate that stable expression of IL1RAPL1 in PC12 cells induces a specific silencing of N-type voltage-gated calcium channels (N-VGCC) activity that explains a secretion deficit observed in these IL1RAPL1 cells. Importantly, this modulation of VGCC activity is mediated by NCS-1. Indeed, a specific loss-of-function of N-VGCC was observed in PC12 cells overexpressing NCS-1, and a total recovery of N-VGCC activity was obtained by a down-regulation of NCS-1 in IL1RAPL1 cells. The functional relevance of the interaction between IL1RAPL1 and NCS-1 was also suggested by the reduction of neurite elongation observed in nerve growth factor (NGF)-treated IL1RAPL1 cells, a phenotype rescued by NCS-1 inactivation. Because both proteins are highly expressed in neurons, these results suggest that IL1RAPL1-related mental retardation could result from a disruption of N-VGCC and/or NCS-1-dependent synaptic and neuronal activities.

Doublecortin interacts with the ubiquitin protease DFFRX, which associates with microtubules in neuronal processes.

Doublecortin (DCX) is a microtubule-associated protein involved in neuronal migration, which causes X-linked lissencephaly and subcortical laminar heterotopia (SCLH) when mutated. Here we show that DCX interacts with the ubiquitin-specific protease Drosophila fat facets related on X chromosome (DFFRX). This interaction was confirmed by targeted mutagenesis, colocalization, and immunoprecipitation studies. DFFRX is thought to deubiquitinate specific substrates including beta-catenin, preventing their degradation by the proteasome. Interestingly, unlike beta-catenin, no ubiquitinated forms of DCX could be detected, and indeed we show that DCX interacts with a novel recognition domain in DFFRX, located outside of its catalytic site. We also show that DFFRX associates with microtubules at specific subcellular compartments, including those enriched in DCX. These results thus suggest that in addition to vesicular trafficking, DCX may play a role in the regulation of cell adhesion via its interaction with DFFRX in migrating and differentiating neurons.

IL1 receptor accessory protein like, a protein involved in X-linked mental retardation, interacts with Neuronal Calcium Sensor-1 and regulates exocytosis.

Previously, human genetics-based approaches allowed us to show that mutations in the IL-1 receptor accessory protein-like gene (IL1RAPL) are responsible for a non-specific form of X-linked mental retardation. This gene encodes a predicted protein of 696 amino acids that belongs to a novel class of the IL-1/Toll receptor family. In addition to the extracellular portion consisting of three Ig-like domains and the intracellular TIR domain characteristic of the IL-1/Toll receptor family, IL1RAPL contains a specific 150 amino acid carboxy terminus that has no significant homology with any protein of known function. In order to begin to elucidate the function of this IL-1/Toll receptor-like protein, we have assessed the effect of recombinant IL1RAPL on the binding affinity of type I IL-1R for its ligands IL-1alpha and beta and searched for proteins interacting with the specific carboxy terminus domain of IL1RAPL. Our results show that IL1RAPL is not a protein receptor for IL-1. In addition we present here the identification of Neuronal Calcium Sensor-1 (NCS-1) as an IL1RAPL interactor. Remarkably, although NCS-1 and its non-mammalian homologue, frequenin, are members of a highly conserved EF-hand Ca(2+) binding protein family, our data show that IL1RAPL interacts only with NCS-1 through its specific C-terminal domain. The functional relevance of IL1RAPL activity was further supported by the inhibitory effect on exocytosis in PC12 cells overexpressing IL1RAPL. Taken together, our data suggest that IL1RAPL may regulate calcium-dependent exocytosis and provide insight into the understanding of physiopathological mechanisms underlying cognitive impairment resulting from IL1RAPL dysfunction.

Specific clinical and brain MRI features in mentally retarded patients with mutations in the Oligophrenin-1 gene.

Oligophrenin-1 (OPHN-1) gene disruption is known as responsible for so called "non-specific" X-linked mental retardation (MR) Billuart et al. [1998: Nature 392:923-926]. In order to search for a possible specific clinical and radiological profile for mutation in the OPHN-1 gene, clinical and 3D brain MRI studies were performed in the two families with a known mutation in OPHN-1 reported so far: a 19-year-old female with an X;12 balanced translocation encompassing OPHN-1, and four affected males of family MRX60 sharing a frameshift mutation in OPHN-1. Clinical data shared by affected individuals were neonatal hypotonia with motor delay but no obvious ataxia, marked strabismus, early onset complex partial seizures, and moderate to severe MR. Brain MRIs performed in three individuals exhibited a specific vermian dysgenesis including an incomplete sulcation of anterior and posterior vermis with the most prominent defect in lobules VI and VII. In addition, a non-specific cerebral cortico-subcortical atrophy was also observed. These clinical and radiological features suggest a distinct clinico-radiological syndrome. These preliminary data need to be confirmed in other families and will be helpful for further targeted mutation screening of the OPHN-1 gene in male patients with similar clinico-radiological features. In addition, OPHN-1 inactivation should be considered as a relevant model of developmental vermis disorganization, leading to a better understanding of the possible role of the cerebellum in MR.

High prevalence of SLC6A8 deficiency in X-linked mental retardation.

A novel X-linked mental retardation (XLMR) syndrome was recently identified, resulting from creatine deficiency in the brain caused by mutations in the creatine transporter gene, SLC6A8. We have studied the prevalence of SLC6A8 mutations in a panel of 290 patients with nonsyndromic XLMR archived by the European XLMR Consortium. The full-length open reading frame and splice sites of the SLC6A8 gene were investigated by DNA sequence analysis. Six pathogenic mutations, of which five were novel, were identified in a total of 288 patients with XLMR, showing a prevalence of at least 2.1% (6/288). The novel pathogenic mutations are a nonsense mutation (p.Y317X) and four missense mutations. Three missense mutations (p.G87R, p.P390L, and p.P554L) were concluded to be pathogenic on the basis of conservation, segregation, chemical properties of the residues involved, as well as the absence of these and any other missense mutation in 276 controls. For the p.C337W mutation, additional material was available to biochemically prove (i.e., by increased urinary creatine : creatinine ratio) pathogenicity. In addition, we found nine novel polymorphisms (IVS1+26G-->A, IVS7+37G-->A, IVS7+87A-->G, IVS7-35G-->A, IVS12-3C-->T, IVS2+88G-->C, IVS9-36G-->A, IVS12-82G-->C, and p.Y498) that were present in the XLMR panel and/or in the control panel. Two missense variants (p.V629I and p.M560V) that were not highly conserved and were not associated with increased creatine : creatinine ratio, one translational silent variant (p.L472), and 10 intervening sequence variants or untranslated region variants (IVS6+9C-->T, IVS7-151_152delGA, IVS7-99C-->A, IVS8-35G-->A, IVS8+28C-->T, IVS10-18C-->T, IVS11+21G-->A, IVS12+15C-->T, *207G-->C, IVS12+32C-->A) were found only in the XLMR panel but should be considered as unclassified variants or as a polymorphism (p.M560V). Our data indicate that the frequency of SLC6A8 mutations in the XLMR population is close to that of CGG expansions in FMR1, the gene responsible for fragile-X syndrome.

ARX, a novel Prd-class-homeobox gene highly expressed in the telencephalon, is mutated in X-linked mental retardation.

Investigation of a critical region for an X-linked mental retardation (XLMR) locus led us to identify a novel Aristaless related homeobox gene (ARX ). Inherited and de novo ARX mutations, including missense mutations and in frame duplications/insertions leading to expansions of polyalanine tracts in ARX, were found in nine familial and one sporadic case of MR. In contrast to other genes involved in XLMR, ARX expression is specific to the telencephalon and ventral thalamus. Notably there is an absence of expression in the cerebellum throughout development and also in adult. The absence of detectable brain malformations in patients suggests that ARX may have an essential role, in mature neurons, required for the development of cognitive abilities.