An integrated buoy-satellite based coastal water quality nowcasting system: India's pioneering efforts towards addressing UN ocean decade challenges.

The Indian coastal waters are stressed due to a multitude of factors, such as the discharge of industrial effluents, urbanization (municipal sewage), agricultural runoff, and river discharge. The coastal waters along the eastern and western seaboard of India exhibit contrasting characteristics in terms of seasonality, the magnitude of river influx, circulation pattern, and degree of anthropogenic activity. Therefore, understanding these processes and forecasting their occurrence is highly necessary to secure the health of coastal waters, habitats, marine resources, and the safety of tourists. This article introduces an integrated buoy-satellite based Water Quality Nowcasting System (WQNS) to address the unique challenges of water quality monitoring in Indian coastal waters and to boost the regional blue economy. The Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) has launched a first-of-its-kind WQNS, and positioned the buoys at two important locations along the east (Visakhapatnam) and west (Kochi) coast of India, covering a range of environmental conditions and tourist-intensive zones. These buoys are equipped with different physical-biogeochemical sensors, data telemetry systems, and integration with satellite-based observations for real-time data transmission to land. The sensors onboard these buoys continuously measure 22 water quality parameters, including surface current (speed and direction), salinity, temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, phycocyanin, phycoerythrin, Coloured Dissolved Organic Matter, chlorophyll-a, turbidity, dissolved methane, hydrocarbon (crude and refined), scattering, pCO2 (water and air), and inorganic macronutrients (nitrite, nitrate, ammonium, phosphate, silicate). This real-time data is transmitted to a central processing facility at INCOIS, and after necessary quality control, the data is disseminated through the INCOIS website. Preliminary results from the WQNS show promising outcomes, including the short-term changes in the water column oxic and hypoxic regimes within a day in coastal waters off Kochi during the monsoon period, whereas effluxing of high levels of CO2 into the atmosphere associated with the mixing of water, driven by local depression in the coastal waters off Visakhapatnam. The system has demonstrated its ability to detect changes in the water column properties due to episodic events and mesoscale processes. Additionally, it offers valuable data for research, management, and policy development related to coastal water quality.

Unravelling tidal effect on zooplankton community structure in a tropical estuary.

The variability in zooplankton density and species composition in response to tidal oscillations were investigated in the lesser saline upper reaches (E1) and higher saline lower reaches (E2) of the Mahanadi Estuary, located at the mouth of the third largest river in Indian Peninsula. This is the first of its kind high frequency observation over the tidal cycle ranging from highest high tide to lowest low tide in this estuary revealing dynamic variability of zooplankton assemblages. Zooplankton abundance was higher during high tide in comparison to low tide, irrespective of salinity regimes. On the diurnal scale, it was higher at night in comparison to the day at both E1 and E2. The higher abundance of zooplankton groups such as Copepoda, Cladocera, and planktonic larvae during the night at E1 as well as E2 indicating an upward migration. Many of the zooplankton taxa (e.g., Pseudodiaptomus serricaudatus, Pseudodiaptomus sp., Acartia danae, Acrocalanus longicornis, Oithona sp., Corycaeus andrewsi) migrated towards E1 due to tidal effect during high tide and maintained their position even during low tide. In contrast, the prevalence of limnetic taxa (e.g., Brachionus rubens, Polyarthra vulgaris, Bosminopsis deitersi, Moina micrura, Heliodiaptomus sp.) at E2 during low tide indicated a predominant riverine source. The tidal variability of Brachyura (zoea and megalopa) revealed different emergence times that indicated dispersal of zoeas to the adjacent Bay of Bengal and the return of magalopa to the Mahanadi Estuary. Species diversity index was higher during high tide, and prominent at E2. At E1, marine, fresh, marine-brackish, and marine-brackish-fresh zooplankton species dominated during high tide, while brackish-fresh taxa dominated during low tide. Differently, E2 was enriched with marine, marine-brackish, and marine-brackish-fresh taxa during high tide, whereas fresh, brackish-fresh, and marine-fresh dominated during low tide. Salinity and suspended matter influenced the dominant zooplankton taxa at E2 and E1, respectively. Zooplankton assemblages exhibited a pattern of prominent diurnal-spatial variation in comparison to the tidal scale in the Mahanadi Estuary. Overall, this study documented a very high zooplankton diversity (92 taxa belonging to 13 groups) and significant variations in species abundance which highlighted the importance of carrying out sampling over the tidal cycle at contrasting salinity regimes.

Effect of Tidal Cycle on Escherichia coli Variability in a Tropical Estuary.

A faecal indicator bacteria, Escherichia coli (E. coli), is widely used in monitoring health of estuaries, where tidal amplitude plays a critical role in its variability. Mahanadi estuary, formed at the mouth of a major tropical river Mahanadi, has large socio-economic importance. This anthropogenically stressed estuary remains understudied with respect to E. coli. Hence, this study addressed E. coli variability in Mahanadi estuary with novel sampling strategy that can be implemented at other tropical estuaries. The sampling strategy includes simultaneous measurements, at lesser-saline upper-estuary and higher-saline lower-estuary, over a tidal cycle. Although no significant variability of E. coli was observed between upper and lower-estuary, overall average count was higher during low tide and lower during high tide attributed to salinity fluctuations. Intermittent surpass of E. coli counts above recommended limits in Mahanadi estuary, indicated potential health risk, thus demands for frequent water quality monitoring and management strategies.

Long-term trend and environmental determinants of phytoplankton biomass in coastal waters of northwestern Bay of Bengal.

The present study is focused on understanding long-term trend in distribution of chlorophyll-a and its association with water quality parameters in coastal waters of northwestern Bay of Bengal. In situ observations were carried out in monthly frequency during January 2009 to March 2017 at two ecologically important study sites, off Gopalpur and off Visakhapatnam. A bimodal distribution of chlorophyll-a was observed off Gopalpur with primary and secondary peak during pre- and post-monsoon, respectively. In contrast, maximum chlorophyll-a concentration was noticed in monsoon irrespective of sporadic higher magnitudes during pre-monsoon in coastal waters off Visakhapatnam. The pivotal role of river influx and coastal upwelling was discerned in enriching coastal waters off Gopalpur with macronutrients and in turn on chlorophyll-a distribution. Adequate availability of silicate signified favorable condition for diatom growth in coastal waters off Gopalpur leading to preponderance. Influence of coastal upwelling and nutrient-controlled growth of phytoplankton was observed in coastal waters off Visakhapatnam.

Water column properties associated with massive algal bloom of green Noctiluca scintillans in the Arabian Sea.

An algal bloom of Noctiluca scintillans (NS) was monitored for 20 days in the Arabian Sea during February 2017. The stations under the influence of NS had low temperature and high salinity compared to outside indicating influence of convective mixing. The microscopic cell count of NS reached a value of 52,600 cells l-1. The surface variability in oxygen and pCO2 measured alongside showed a strong disconnect. Modest supersaturation of surface waters (ΔpCO2 = 3-75 µatm) was observed around the NS bloom compared to outside. However, as these stations were under the influence of convective mixing, the observed change in pCO2 due to subsurface ventilation cannot be ruled out. From the viewpoint of climate change and its influence on oceanic processes, constant monitoring of this bloom becomes essential due to its survival strategy in nutrient-depleted conditions and light of the present observations.

Investigating Indian oil sardine aggregation events in coastal waters of the southeastern Arabian sea.

The southwest coast of India experiences frequent Indian oil sardine (IOS) nearshore aggregation events, especially in the coastal waters off Kerala. These ephemeral dense IOS aggregation events are known as "Sardine Run". To investigate the reason and provide a scientific basis for these sporadic events, satellite/model-derived physical, meteorological, and biological parameters were analysed. Sea Surface Temperature during a majority of events was in the range of 26-29 °C, agreeing with the reported temperature conditions for IOS in the Arabian Sea. Additionally, a marginal lowering of SST as an effect of precipitation before most of the events might have attracted IOS towards the near-coastal waters in addition to the phytoplankton diet availability, resulting in the aggregation event. However, different scenarios also depicted coastal warming and probable hypoxic conditions in degrading IOS habitat and resulting in beach aggregation events. During most of the IOS aggregation events, the wind and surface current direction was alongshore/coastward, which complemented the propagation of live IOS shoals towards the beach.

Effects of tidal cycle on greenhouse gases emissions from a tropical estuary.

The potential effects of tidal and diel cycles on fluxes and concentrations of carbon dioxide (pCO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O) along with associated biogeochemical processes remain poorly understood in tropical estuaries. The present study, based on six-hourly sampling for nine consecutive days at three locations along the salinity gradient in the Mahanadi estuary of India, revealed that the tidal forcing affected pCO2 and CH4 in the mixing zone with elevated concentrations during low tide with maximum concentrations up to 21,606 µatm and 285 µM, respectively. pCO2 increased with decrease in tidal height within low and high tide duration as well, possibly due to higher relative contribution of freshwater with high CO2. N2O, on the other hand, showed no significant variability with tidal cycle or water level fluctuation during high and low tide. Barring the offshore region, the study area was source of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere.

Status and conservation challenges of the second-largest seagrass bed in India: Chilika lagoon.

Studies related to seagrass ecology, conservation, and management are sparse and highly biased in India. Even though the geographical distribution of seagrass is diverse in India, about 74% of the scientific publications have been made from Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar from Tamilnadu. Chilika, the largest lagoon in Asia, harbors the second largest seagrass meadow in India 22% of the total. The lagoon acts as a potential blue carbon stock and helps in thriving a rich floral and faunal biodiversity. However, the critical role of seagrass in this unique lagoon ecosystem is still poorly understood. This review is aimed at synthesizing the published literature about seagrass in Chilika. We believe this information would encourage more in-depth and diverse seagrass studies in the region and identify future priority areas for research. A total of seven species have been recorded from 169.2 sq. km of seagrass patch in Chilika. For the last two decades, no significant signs of decline in seagrass beds from this lagoon have been reported. Still, various natural and anthropogenic stressors could put this unique ecosystem under severe stress. Moreover, lax enforcement of existing legislation and a general lack of knowledge among the stakeholders about their ecosystem services can be significant impediments to their conservation. More targeted research on Chilika seagrass in changing climate regimes and their sustainable intensification is the need of the hour.

Response of coastal phytoplankton pigment composition to tropical cyclone Fani.

Phytoplankton pigment composition was evaluated during the pre-cyclone phase (PRCP) and post-cyclone phase (POCP) of tropical cyclone Fani in the coastal waters of the northwestern Bay of Bengal. The chromatographic analysis revealed higher pigment diversity and an increase in individual pigment concentration during POCP. Chlorophyll-a (chl-a) was the dominant pigment during PRCP and POCP, followed by fucoxanthin. However, chl-a and fucoxanthin concentrations increased 18- and 14-folds, respectively, during the POCP, signifying Bacillariophyta bloom. Complementing microscopy confirmed the dominance of the toxic Bacillariophyta species Pseudo-nitzschia pungens (reaching 5.47 × 104 cells l-1) during the POCP. The cyclone-induced nutrient recharge of the ambient medium could have promoted phytoplankton growth, causing the reappearance of diatom bloom during the later phase of the pre-southwest monsoon. Small-sized Prymnesiophyta and Cryptophyta were not detected microscopically; however, they were identified by chromatographic analysis through pigment markers during POCP.

Long-term chlorophyll-a dynamics in tropical coastal waters of the western Bay of Bengal.

The long-term distribution of in situ optically active substances (OAS), accuracy assessment of satellite retrieved chlorophyll-a (chl-a) and its long-term trend has been carried out at a coastal site of the north-western Bay of Bengal. The temporal distribution of chl-a, total suspended matter (TSM) and absorption due to coloured dissolved organic matter at 440 nm (aCDOM440) discerned a common peak during southwest monsoon season (August-October). Chl-a also showed a prominent peak during pre-southwest monsoon period (March-April). The spatial variability of TSM and aCDOM440 was maximum during southwest monsoon, whereas in the case of chl-a, it was during pre-southwest monsoon. The accuracy assessment of chl-a retrieved from Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer-Aqua (MODISA), Ocean Colour Monitor-2 (OCM-2) and Visible Infrared Imager Radiometer Suite (VIIRS) showed overestimation in nearshore waters. The error in satellite measurement of chl-a was within the range of 33 to 51%. The chl-a retrieved from MODISA was most accurate as indicated by statistical analysis. The long-term trend in satellite chl-a clearly indicated bi-modal distribution with a primary peak during pre-southwest monsoon attributed to recurrent phytoplankton bloom that was mostly confined to nearshore waters. Whereas, the secondary peak in chl-a, during the end of southwest monsoon, spreads far offshore.

A baseline investigation of phytoplankton pigment composition in contrasting coastal ecosystems of north-western Bay of Bengal.

A baseline investigation of the chromatographic characterization of phytoplankton pigments with complementing microscopy was conducted in Mahanadi estuary, Chilika lagoon, and coastal waters off Gopalpur along the east coast of India. Marker pigments specific to different phytoplankton groups have been discerned in these contrasting coastal ecosystems. A total of 16 phytoplankton pigments were identified. Irrespective of seasons, Chilika lagoon was characterized by a high concentration of zeaxanthin, indicating the predominance of picocyanobacteria. Zeaxanthin and fucoxanthin were the major diagnostic pigments in Mahanadi estuary during monsoon and other seasons, respectively. In coastal waters off Gopalpur, algal blooms resulted in a higher concentration of fucoxanthin during pre-monsoon and monsoon season. The pigment ratios were comparatively higher for Chilika lagoon than for Mahanadi estuary and off Gopalpur, irrespective of seasons. The present study highlights the advantages of the chromatography technique in identifying small-sized phytoplankton in coastal ecosystems in comparison to conventional microscopy.

Empirical relationships for remote sensing reflectance and Noctiluca scintillans cell density in the northeastern Arabian Sea.

A dinoflagellate under the ambit of Harmful Algal Blooms (HAB), the bioluminescent Noctiluca scintillans (NS), has been infesting the northern Arabian Sea increasingly over the last few decades during late winter. Their occurrence is found to be due to seasonal oscillations in the coastal currents. The physical and biogeochemical parameters associated with the seasonal blooms are reasonably well known. But accurate quantitative estimation capability using remote sensing sensors over the extensive oceanic regime is still lacking. This is especially due to a lack of information on bio-optical properties associated with cell density measurements. We attempted to show that remote sensing reflectance and chl-a show significant relationship e.g., Rrs(531)/Rrs(510) = 0.8261 + 6.06 × 10-6NS + 0.02323chl-a (N = 19, R2adj = 0.99, p = 2.5 × 10-17, RMSE = 0.1083) which is applicable over diverse areas of the northeastern Arabian Sea e.g., coastal, shelf and offshore regions. The model is supported by a second dataset with an RMSE of 0.022893 (N = 8) for the Rrs(531)/Rrs(510) ratio. The NS cell densities were derived from the Rrs(510)/Rrs(531) band ratio within reasonable error and accuracy limits. Including sensor capability at 510 nm is suggested in future satellite launches.

Seasonal dynamics of phytoplankton in response to environmental variables in contrasting coastal ecosystems.

Seasonal distribution of phytoplankton community and size structure was assessed in three different tropical ecosystems of the western Bay of Bengal viz. estuary (Mahanadi), lagoon (Chilika), and coastal waters (off Gopalpur) in response to ambient hydrobiology. Salinity regimes differentiated the study regions as contrasting ecosystems irrespective of seasons (pre-monsoon, monsoon, post-monsoon). Taxonomic account revealed a total no of 175, 65, and 101 phytoplankton species in the estuary, lagoon, and coastal waters, respectively. Prevalence of marine, brackish, and fresh water types in the coastal waters, lagoon, and estuary, respectively, characterized the contrasting nature of the study regions in hosting the phytoplankton community. In general, phytoplankton abundance was observed in increasing order of coastal waters > estuary > lagoon during post-monsoon and pre-monsoon, while lagoon > coastal waters > estuary during monsoon. Bacillariophyta dominated the phytoplankton community in the estuary and coastal waters during all the seasons. In contrast, the lagoon exhibited a diverse array of phytoplankton group such as cyanophyta, dinophyta, and bacillariophyta during monsoon, post-monsoon, and pre-monsoon, respectively. Over the seasons, microphytoplankton emerged as the dominant phytoplankton size class in the coastal waters. Diversely, nanophytoplankton contributed to major fraction of chlorophyll-a concentration in the estuary and lagoon. Interestingly, pre-monsoon dinophyta bloom (causative species: Noctiluca scintillans with cell density 9 × 104 cells·l-1) and monsoon bacillariophyta bloom (causative species: Asterionellopsis glacialis 5.02 × 104 cells·l-1) resulted decline in species diversity. Multivariate statistical analysis deciphered salinity as a major environmental player in determining the distribution, diversity, and composition of phytoplankton communities in the three contrasting environments. Trophic state indices signified the lagoon and estuary as hypereutrophic during all season. The coastal water was marked as highly eutrophic through trophic state index during monsoon and pre-monsoon.