The 7-year follow-up of the Hungarian BICAMS validation cohort implies that cognitive performance may improve in multiple sclerosis patients.

BACKGROUND: Cognitive impairment (CI) is a frequent symptom of multiple sclerosis (MS) and has a great impact on the patients' quality of life, so screening is essential. The brief international cognitive assessment for multiple sclerosis (BICAMS) was developed for this purpose. However, longitudinal data is lacking with the use of the battery. OBJECTIVE: This study is to assess the performance of patients after 5 and 7 years of the original BICAMS validation study and to identify any influencing factors. METHODS: BICAMS was used to measure cognitive function of 52 relapsing-remitting MS patients (RRMS) from the original validation study after 5 years (n = 43) and again, after 7 years (n = 42). Patients filled out the fatigue impact scale (FIS) and multiple sclerosis quality of life-54 (MSQoL-54) questionnaire, and we evaluated expanded disability status scale (EDSS). RESULTS: There was an improvement in the BVMT-R and the CVLT-II assessments at both the 5-year (p<0.001 and p=0.025) and the 7-year retest (p<0.001 and p=0.002). The prevalence of CI significantly decreased at the 5-year mark (p=0.021) but remained stable after that. There was no deterioration in MSQoL scores during the study. The basic cognitive performance is the most important influencing factor, but the duration of the disease, the EDSS score, and the escalation of the therapy also affect the cognitive scores. CONCLUSION: This is the longest longitudinal study utilizing the BICAMS battery, reinforcing its feasibility as a clinical screening tool. It seems that cognitive performance may improve in the long term and early initiation of effective therapy may influence this outcome.

Fatigue and depression influence the prevalence of anxiety in patients with multiple sclerosis.

BACKGROUND: There is scarce information in Middle-Eastern Europe regarding the prevalence of anxiety in patients with multiple sclerosis (pwMS) and its association with different clinical-demographic factors. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to determine the prevalence of anxiety in Hungarian MS patients and to analyze associated factors. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We evaluated 260 PwMS with the STAI-5 anxiety questionnaire. Fatigue (FIS), depression (BDI-II) and cognition (BICAMS) were also measured. Patients underwent standard neurological evaluations to evaluate Expanded Disability Status Scale (EDSS), and also measured the fine motor skills of the hand with the 9-hole peg test (9HPT), and the walking distance with the 25-foot walking test (T25FW). RESULTS: We identified 23.1% (N = 60) of the patients with anxiety (only state, trait or both forms concurrently). According to our two univariate, multivariable logistic regression analysis, fatigue and depression are strongly associated with both state and trait anxiety. In the absence of fatigue, the odds of trait anxiety are 82% lower (OR: 0.18; 95% CI: 0.06-0.53; p = 0.002), while in the case of pwMS without depression, the odds are reduced by 81% (OR: 0.19; CI95%= 0.07-0.51, p = 0.001). This association with fatigue (OR: 0.33; CI95%= 0.13-0.85, p = 0.021) and depression (OR: 0.14; CI95%=0.06-0.35; p < 0.001) can also be statistically verified on state anxiety. Importantly, a significant association with state anxiety was found in SPSM patients as well (OR: 34.94; CI95%=2.55-479.61; p = 0.008). CONCLUSIONS: Anxiety was strongly associated with fatigue, depression, and secondary progressive disease form. These results emphasize the burden of psychiatric morbidity in pwMS.

Functional Connectivity Lateralisation Shift of Resting State Networks is Linked to Visuospatial Memory and White Matter Microstructure in Relapsing-Remitting Multiple Sclerosis.

Laterality patterns of resting state networks (RSN) change in various neuropsychiatric conditions. Multiple sclerosis (MS) causes neuro-cognitive symptoms involving dysfunctional large-scale brain networks. Yet, whether healthy laterality patterns of RSNs are maintained in MS and whether altered laterality patterns explain disease symptoms has not been explicitly investigated. We analysed functional MRI and diffusion tensor imaging data from 24 relapsing-remitting MS patients and 25 healthy participants. We performed group-level independent component analysis and used dual regression to estimate individual versions of well-established RSNs. Voxelwise laterality indices were calculated for each RSN. Group differences were assessed via a general linear model-based approach. The relationship between functional laterality and white matter microstructural asymmetry was assessed using Tract-Based Spatial Statistics. Spearman's correlation was calculated between laterality indices and Brief International Cognitive Assessment for Multiple Sclerosis scores. Functional laterality of the dorsal attention network showed a significant leftward shift in the MS group in the posterior intraparietal sulcus (p < 0.033). Default-mode network laterality showed a significant leftward shift in the MS group in the angular gyrus (p < 0.005). Diminished dorsal attention network laterality was associated with increased fractional anisotropy asymmetry in the superior longitudinal fasciculus (p < 0.02). In the default-mode network, leftward laterality of the angular gyrus was associated with higher BVMT-R scores (R = - 0.52, p < 0.023). Our results confirm previous descriptions of RSN dysfunction in relapsing-remitting MS and show that altered functional connectivity lateralisation patterns of RSNs might contibute to cognitive performance and structural remodellation even in patients with mild clinical symptoms.

Proteomics in Multiple Sclerosis: The Perspective of the Clinician.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is the inflammatory demyelinating and neurodegenerative disease of the central nervous system (CNS) that affects approximately 2.8 million people worldwide. In the last decade, a new era was heralded in by a new phenotypic classification, a new diagnostic protocol and the first ever therapeutic guideline, making personalized medicine the aim of MS management. However, despite this great evolution, there are still many aspects of the disease that are unknown and need to be further researched. A hallmark of these research are molecular biomarkers that could help in the diagnosis, differential diagnosis, therapy and prognosis of the disease. Proteomics, a rapidly evolving discipline of molecular biology may fulfill this dire need for the discovery of molecular biomarkers. In this review, we aimed to give a comprehensive summary on the utility of proteomics in the field of MS research. We reviewed the published results of the method in case of the pathogenesis of the disease and for biomarkers of diagnosis, differential diagnosis, conversion of disease courses, disease activity, progression and immunological therapy. We found proteomics to be a highly effective emerging tool that has been providing important findings in the research of MS.

Emerging Biomarkers of Multiple Sclerosis in the Blood and the CSF: A Focus on Neurofilaments and Therapeutic Considerations.

INTRODUCTION: Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is the most common immune-mediated chronic neurodegenerative disease of the central nervous system (CNS) affecting young people. This is due to the permanent disability, cognitive impairment, and the enormous detrimental impact MS can exert on a patient's health-related quality of life. It is of great importance to recognise it in time and commence adequate treatment at an early stage. The currently used disease-modifying therapies (DMT) aim to reduce disease activity and thus halt disability development, which in current clinical practice are monitored by clinical and imaging parameters but not by biomarkers found in blood and/or the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Both clinical and radiological measures routinely used to monitor disease activity lack information on the fundamental pathophysiological features and mechanisms of MS. Furthermore, they lag behind the disease process itself. By the time a clinical relapse becomes evident or a new lesion appears on the MRI scan, potentially irreversible damage has already occurred in the CNS. In recent years, several biomarkers that previously have been linked to other neurological and immunological diseases have received increased attention in MS. Additionally, other novel, potential biomarkers with prognostic and diagnostic properties have been detected in the CSF and blood of MS patients. AREAS COVERED: In this review, we summarise the most up-to-date knowledge and research conducted on the already known and most promising new biomarker candidates found in the CSF and blood of MS patients. DISCUSSION: the current diagnostic criteria of MS relies on three pillars: MRI imaging, clinical events, and the presence of oligoclonal bands in the CSF (which was reinstated into the diagnostic criteria by the most recent revision). Even though the most recent McDonald criteria made the diagnosis of MS faster than the prior iteration, it is still not an infallible diagnostic toolset, especially at the very early stage of the clinically isolated syndrome. Together with the gold standard MRI and clinical measures, ancillary blood and CSF biomarkers may not just improve diagnostic accuracy and speed but very well may become agents to monitor therapeutic efficacy and make even more personalised treatment in MS a reality in the near future. The major disadvantage of these biomarkers in the past has been the need to obtain CSF to measure them. However, the recent advances in extremely sensitive immunoassays made their measurement possible from peripheral blood even when present only in minuscule concentrations. This should mark the beginning of a new biomarker research and utilisation era in MS.

[Follow up examination of multiple sclerosis patients treated with alemtuzumab in Multiple Sclerosis Centre, Szeged]. / Alemtuzumabterápiával kezelt sclerosis multiplexes betegek követéses vizsgálata a szegedi Sclerosis Multiplex Centrumban.

Background and purpose: Therapeutic strategy of relapse-remitting multiple sclerosis has changed significantly during the past decade. While earlier escalating therapy was widely applied, recently, in case of high disease activity, induction therapy has become available. Methods: In our study, we processed the data of our alemtuzumab treated patients from our register. Alte-ra-tions in relapse rate and MRI activity due to the treatment were determined. These data were compared in patients treated with alemtuzumab as an escalating and as an induction therapy. We noted the observed side effects. Results: The 49 patients observed in the study had undergone two cycles of alemtuzumab therapy. The drug was applied as an induction therapy in 9 cases. Average relapse rate during the two years was 1.4±1.0, which decreased to 0.1±0.3 in the two years following the therapy. The average EDSS before therapy was 2.7±2.2 in the induction therapy group and 2.7±1.7 in the escalating therapy group. After the treatment, this score decreased to 1.6±0.6 and 2.5±1.8 in the induction and the escalating therapy group, respectively. We found clinical and MRI progression in case of 4 patients. As regards to side effects, cytokine release was detected in 51.0% of the patients following the first cycle, and 24.5% of the patients following the second cycle of the therapy. Infection related to the therapy was observed in 28.6%, while autoimmune thyreoiditis was diagnosed in 18.3% of the patients. Conclusion: The tight follow-up of the treated patients and the precise documentation of the register enable the comparison of results yielded by placebo controlled clinical studies with daily practice, as well as to gain information on the benefits of induction therapy as a paradigm shift in treating MS patients.

Altered brain network function during attention-modulated visual processing in multiple sclerosis.

BACKGROUND: Multiple sclerosis may damage cognitive performance in several domains, including attention. Although attention network deficits were described during rest, studies that investigate their function during task performance are scarce. OBJECTIVE: To investigate connectivity within and between task-related networks in multiple sclerosis during a visual attention task as a function of cognitive performance. METHODS: A total of 23 relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (RRMS) patients and 29 healthy controls underwent task-functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scans using a visual attention paradigm on a 3T scanner. Scans were analysed using tensor-independent component analysis (TICA). Functional connectivity was calculated within and between components. We assessed cognitive function with the Brief International Cognitive Assessment for MS (BICAMS) battery. RESULTS: TICA extracted components related to visual processing, attention, executive function and the default-mode network. Subject scores of visual/attention-related and executive components were greater in healthy controls (p < 0.032, p < 0.023). Connectivity between visual/attention-related and default-mode components was higher in patients (p < 0.043), correlating with Brief Visuospatial Memory Test-Revised (BVMT-R) scores (R = -0.48, p < 0.036). Patients showed reduced connectivity between the right intraparietal sulcus (rIPS) and frontal eye field (rFEF), and bilateral frontal eye fields (p < 0.012, p < 0.003). Reduced rIPS-rFEF connectivity came with lower Symbol Digit Modalities Test (SDMT)/BVMT-R scores in patients (R = 0.53, p < 0.02, R = 0.46, p < 0.049). CONCLUSION: Attention-related networks show altered connectivity during task performance in RRMS patients, scaling with cognitive disability.

Neurodegeneration in Multiple Sclerosis: Symptoms of Silent Progression, Biomarkers and Neuroprotective Therapy-Kynurenines Are Important Players.

Neurodegeneration is one of the driving forces behind the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS). Progression without activity, pathopsychological disturbances (cognitive impairment, depression, fatigue) and even optic neuropathy seems to be mainly routed in this mechanism. In this article, we aim to give a comprehensive review of the clinical aspects and symptomology, radiological and molecular markers and potential therapeutic targets of neurodegeneration in connection with MS. As the kynurenine pathway (KP) was evidenced to play an important role in the pathogenesis of other neurodegenerative conditions (even implied to have a causative role in some of these diseases) and more and more recent evidence suggest the same central role in the neurodegenerative processes of MS as well, we pay special attention to the KP. Metabolites of the pathway are researched as biomarkers of the disease and new, promising data arising from clinical evaluations show the possible therapeutic capability of KP metabolites as neuroprotective drugs in MS. Our conclusion is that the kynurenine pathway is a highly important route of research both for diagnostic and for therapeutic values and is expected to yield concrete results for everyday medicine in the future.

Association of Exercise Capacity with Physical Functionality and Various Aspects of Fatigue in Patients with Coronary Artery Disease.

The aim of this study was to examine associations between exercise capacity-indexed as the metabolic equivalent of the task-and various aspects of subjective fatigue, physical functionality, and depression in patients with coronary artery disease. A cross-sectional design was used. Patients with stable coronary artery disease (N = 240) underwent an exercise stress test and completed self-report assessments of depression, subjective physical limitations, vital exhaustion, and the impact of fatigue on physical, social, and cognitive functions. Associations between exercise capacity and these self-report variables were assessed using bivariate correlations and a series of multivariate regressions. Exercise capacity was negatively associated with vital exhaustion, physical limitations, and impact of fatigue on physical and social functioning but not on cognitive functioning. There was a marginal association between exercise capacity and depression. The associations between exercise capacity and fatigue remained significant even after controlling for effects of age, body mass index, gender, education, and comorbid diabetes mellitus. The main conclusion of the study is that in patients with coronary artery disease, exercise capacity has the strongest predictability for physical fatigue, but, importantly, it also independently predicts the feeling of loss of energy and malaise.

[The role of MRI in measuring the effectivity of disease modifying treatments I]. / Az MRI helye a sclerosis multiplex kezelés hatékonyságának megítélésében I.: mérési markerek.

MRI has a significant role in the diagnosis of multiple sclerosis. The newer and newer treatment options of the disease make it necessary to monitor the effectiveness of the therapy. Besides the clinical signs (clinical relapses and progression), the different MRI parameters can also reflect the disease activity. In our current article we summarize those MRI markers, which best predict the long-term disability, based on the international standards.

[The role of MRI in measuring the effectivity of disease modifying treatments II]. / Az MRI helye a sclerosis multiplex kezelés hatékonyságának megítélésében II.: mérési protokollok.

The paraclinical examinations, principally the MRI have an increasing significance in the diagnosis of multiple sclerosis. However, MRI markers also have a prominent role in monitoring of the disease-course and activity, and also in the planning of possible therapeutic changes. In accordance with previously published international guidelines, in this article we propose a protocol for the monitoring the treatment efficacy in multiple sclerosis. This could be the basis of a consensus based guideline to be implemented in Hungary.

Different phenotypes in identical twins with cerebrotendinous xanthomatosis: case series.

Cerebrotendinous xanthomatosis (CTX) is a rare, genetically determined error of metabolism. The characteristic clinical symptoms are diarrhea, juvenile cataracts, tendon xanthomas and neuropsychiatric alterations. The aim of this study is to present a pair of identical adult twins with considerable differences in the severity of phenotype. With regards to neuropsychiatric symptoms, the predominant features were severe Parkinsonism and moderate cognitive dysfunctions in the more-affected individual, whereas these alterations in the less-affected patient were only very mild and mild, respectively. The characteristic increase in the concentrations of serum cholestanol and the lesion volumes in dentate nuclei in the brain assessed with magnetic resonance imaging were quite similar in both cases. The lifestyle conditions, including eating habits of the twin pair, were quite similar as well; therefore, currently unknown genetic modifiers or certain epigenetic factors may be responsible for the differences in severity of phenotype. This case series serves as the first description of an identical twin pair with CTX presenting heterogeneous clinical features.

[Alemtuzumab therapy 2017]. / Alemtuzumabterápia, 2017.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic, immune-mediated disease of the central nervous system comprising of inflammation, demyelinisation and neurodegeneration. The natural history of MS is heterogenous. Owing to the vast range and severity of the symptoms MS can cause the effect of the disease on one's cognitive and physical status is unpredictable. According to the new, phenotype based classification two subgroups can be distinguished; relapsing-remitting (RR) and progressive MS. Relapsing-remitting MS can be further divided into active and inactive disease. The activity of the disease can be proven either clinically and/or by radiological means. A patient's disease is considered inactive, if it fulfills the criteriae set in the "no evidence of disease activity-3" (NEDA-3) concept, meaning that no progression can be seen on the MRI scans, the patient is relapse free and there is no worsening on any disability scale. Nowadays a paradigm shift can be seen in the treatment of MS. The aim of this shift is to provide each and every patient with the most potent medication best suiting his/her illness as soon as possible. Alemtuzumab offers a great option as either a first line treatment or as escalation therapy for patients with a highly active disease. The efficacy of alemtuzumab was proven in two phase III trials (CARE-MS I, II), where it was compared to subcutaneous interferon b-1a, administered three times weekly. In both studies alemtuzumab was superior to subcutaneous interferon b-1a in terms of relapse rate reduction, in all scouted MRI parameters. In the CARE-MS II trial it was found superior in terms of progression slowing. In the studies' first 2 years 32% and 39% of the alemtuzumab treated patients managed to achieve the NEDA-3 state (data from CARE-MS II and I respectively). At the end of the 4 year extension of both studies these numbers have increased to 60% and 55% respectively. The aim of our synopsis is to suggest neurologists an evidence based guideline, a therapeutic algorithm to be used when they give their MS patients the very best, personalised treatment, and also to appoint the recently introduced alemtuzumab to its proper place in the algorithm.

[The Multiple Sclerosis Registry of Szeged]. / A Szegedi Sclerosis Multiplex Regiszter.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a rare disease of the central nervous system considering the total population, the prevalence in Hungary is 83.9/100.000. The first MS registry was established in Denmark in the middle of the 1950's. This was followed by the establishment of several national, then international databases with the number of enrolled patients in the hundred-thousands. At the beginning, the primary goal of the registries were the epidemiological surveys, focusing on the number of patients, the prevalence, the incidence, the mortality and the co-morbidity. As of today, however, with the rapid advancement and development of new disease modifying therapies (DMT) with different effectiveness and adverse reactions, the therapeutic use of the registries became even more essential: the modern, up-to-date, well established registries become integral part of the DMTs' monitorization. The Multiple Sclerosis Registry of Szeged was first established as a "paper-based" database, then, in 2012, it was upgraded to an electronic, easily contactable and useable internet-based registry. As of today, it contains the socio-demographic and clinical data of more than 600 patients; we constantly add new patients as well as keep the registry up-to-date with the refreshment of old patients' data. Aside from the "classical" clinical data, it can be used for the recording and assessment of the MRI scans and the data on psychopathological and quality of life assessments, which are becoming more and more important in everyday MS management. The establishment of the internet-based registry incredibly helped both the monitorization of the effectiveness of DMTs, and the success of the new epidemiological and psychopathological surveys.

[Change of therapeutic algorithm in sclerosis multiplex based on two case reports]. / Terápiás algoritmus változása sclerosis multiplexben két esettanulmány alapján.

The aim of our case reports is to demonstrate the therapeutic use and possibilities one has with alemtuzumab, should it be used either as a first or second line therapy. Our first patient's disease in the beginning seemed to be benign. It was not the case however, over several years the diesase showed high activity both radiologically and clinically, she was treated with alemtuzumab as part of an esclationbased therapeutic strategy. The second patient's disease on the other hand showed formidable activity since the very beginning both radiologically and clinically. Therefore we were facing a very disastrous prognosis on the long run, accordingly he received alemtuzumab treatment very early into his illness.

Unilateral thalamic infarction causing downward gaze palsy in a patient with uncorrected tetralogy of fallot: a case report.

Introduction - Tetralogy of Fallot (TOF) is the most common form of cyanotic congenital heart disease (CHD). Adults with surgically uncorrected forms of this condition are extremely rare, since operation is recommended in childhood to prevent cyanosis. Cyanotic CHD increases the risk of thromboembolic events. An endothelial dysfunction caused by chronic hypoxia and shear stress due to rheological alterations with a platelet dysfunction appear to be the explanation behind this finding. Paramedian thalamic infarction causing vertical gaze palsy without midbrain involvement is an infrequent finding. We report here a rare case of a patient with untreated TOF, who suffered a left-sided unilateral thalamic infarction presenting as downward gaze palsy and diplopia. Case presentation - A 44-year-old women complained of sudden onset diplopia and vertigo. Neurological examination revealed a downward gaze palsy with other symptoms related to a vertebrobasilar territory circulatory disturbance. The MRI scan revealed an acute infarction, 8 mm in diameter in the left medial thalamic region without midbrain involvement. Discussion - Adults with uncorrected forms of TOF are extremely uncommon, and descriptions of stroke in these patients are therefore rarities. We set out to give a concise survey of the literature regarding TOF patients with stroke. Conclusion - We present a rare case of unilateral thalamic infarction causing downward gaze palsy in an adult patient with uncorrected TOF. Cyanotic CHD is regarded as one of the risk factors of stroke. Besides other pathologic conditions, ischaemic stroke at an early age should raise the suspicion of a cardioembolic origin and, in rare cases, might result from cyanotic CHD.

[TERIFLUNOMIDE: A NEW ORAL IMMUNOMODULATING AGENT FOR MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS]. / TERIFLUNOMID: ÚJ ORÁLIS IMMUNMODULÁLÓ KEZELÉS SCLEROSIS MULTIPLEXBEN.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is the autoimmune, demyelinating, neurodegenerative disorder of the central nervous system (CNS). There are nine drugs available in Hungary reimbursed by the National Health Insurance Fund of Hungary (OEP) to reduce the activity of the disease, from which seven can be used as first line therapies. We have approximately 20 years of experience with the interferon beta-1a/1b and glatiramer-acetate products. Though in case of approximately 30% of the patients using one of the first line drugs, the disease remains active, that we call break-through disease. The reasons for breakthrough disease could be the insufficient adherence and compliance, the appearance of neutralizing antibodies or the high activity of the disease. One of the oral immunomodulating drugs for MS, teriflunomide, was registered in Europe in 2013. Because of the anti-proliferative and anti-inflammatory effect of teriflunomide, it can be used for the reduction of the disease activity in the relapsing-remitting course of MS. The effect of teriflunomide was proved in one Phase II. and four Phase III. (TEMSO, TOWER, TENERE, TOPIC) studies. Teriflunomide 14 mg once daily was able to demonstrate in two consecutive placebo-controlled phase 3 clinical trials that significantly reduces the relapse rate (31.5% and 36.3%) and in both studies significantly reduces the sustained disability progression (29.8% and 31.5%) moreover delays the appearance of the clinically definitive MS in patients with clinically isolated syndrome (CIS). According to the TENERE study there were no significant differences observed between teriflunomide 14 mg and IFNß-α a s.c. in time to failure and annualized relapse rate but the treatment satisfaction domains of global satisfaction, side-effects and convenience were significantly improved with teriflunomide compared with s.c. IFNß-α.

GENETIC POLYMORPHISMS OF HUMAN ß-DEFENSINS IN PATIENTS WITH MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS.

AIMS: Recent studies have started to elucidate the contribution of microbiome to the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS). It is also supposed, that neuropathological alterations might be associated with abnormal expression and regulatory function of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), including defensins. It is in our interest to investigate the relevance of the single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of the DEFB1 gene and the copy number polymorphism of the DEFB4 genes in MS. METHODS: DEFBI polymorphisms: c.-20G > A (rsl 1362), DEFB1 c.-44C > G (rsI 800972), DEFB1 c.-52G>A (rsl 799946), and the DEFB4 gene copy number were investigated in 250 MS patients The control patients comprised 232 age- and gender-matched healthy blood donors. The occurrence of the human ß-defensin 2 peptide (hBD2) in the plasma of controls and patients-was determined by ELISA. RESULTS: The DEFB1 c.-44C>G polymorphism the GG protective genotype was much less frequent among patients than among the controls. A higher frequency of a lower (<4) copy number of the DEFB4 gene was observed in the patients with MS as compared with the controls (43% vs. 28%, respectively). The median levels of the circulating hBD2 in the patients were 150.6 +/- 12.71 pg/ml vs. 262.1 +/- 23.82 pg/mI in the control group (p<0.0001). Our results suggest that ß-defensins play role in the development of MS.

[[Natalizumab therapy, 2013]. / Natalizumabterápia, 2013.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is the most common chronic disease of the central nervous system in young adults. No curative therapy is known. Currently, six drugs are available that can reduce the activity of MS. The first-line drugs can completely reduce the activity of the disease in nearly two-thirds of the patients. In the remainder, who suffer from breakthrough disease, the condition of the patient worsens, and second-line therapies must be used. The second-line drug natalizumab exhibits almost double efficacy of the first-line drugs, but also have less favourable adverse effects. As a severe side-effect for instance, natalizumab carries the risk of the development of progressive multifocal leucoencephalopathy (PML), caused by a polyoma virus, the JC virus. There are three major risk factors for PML: an anti-JCV antibody status, a long duration of natalizumab treatment and prior immunosuppressant therapy. The lowest-risk group (1:14,286) comprises of patients who are anti-JCV antibody-negative, in whom the prior immunosuppressant use and duration of natalizumab therapy do not influence the risk of PML. With no prior immunosuppressant treatment, the incidence of PML increases to 1 in 192 patients after 2 years among those who are anti-JCV antibody-positive. These data may lead the physician to decide to discontinue natalizumab treatment. The half-life of natalizumab is three months; during this time other therapies can not be administered and the patients encounter the rebound effect: as the patients receiving natalizumab therapy displayed a high disease activity before treatment, the rebound effect can lead to relapses. After the termination of natalizumab second-line disease-modifying therapy with fingolimod may be introduced; no PML cases occur in response to fingolimod treatment. In the large majority of patients taking natalizumab who do not develop PML, this drug is highly effective and can prevent the progression of MS. The benefit of therapy and the risk of PML must be considered on an individual basis, with regard to the disease activity, the progression and the MRI activity, before natalizumab therapy is implemented.

Grey matter atrophy in patients suffering from multiple sclerosis.

White matter lesions are defining characteristics of multiple sclerosis (MS), whereas grey matter involvement is a less recognised attribute. Recent investigations using dedicated imaging approaches have made it possible to depict cortical lesions. Additionally, grey matter atrophy may be estimated using various methods. Several studies have suggested that grey matter atrophy closely correlates to clinical disability. In this review we have collected information on grey matter atrophy in MS and the effect of disease modifying therapies upon brain atrophy.